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coPYRiGirr DEPOstr. 



THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL 
AND THE COMMUNITY 



BY 

INEZ N. McFEE 

AUTHOR OF STUDIES IN AMERICAN AND BRITISH LITERATURE 

AMERICAN HEROES FROM HISTORY 

THE STORY OF THE IDYLLS OF THE KING 




AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO 






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Copyright, 1918, by 
INEZ N. McFEE 

The Teacher, the School and 
the Community 



W. P. 1 



^^^^30 ^q;, |cg5ci.A503613 



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PREFACE 

TN preparing the following pages the author has had in 
"•- mind the three-fold object of modern education: the 
training of the physical, the mental, and the moral nature 
of the child. The environment of school life should be in 
harmony with his unfolding nature and growing abilities, 
and it should also be a source of constant pleasure to him. 

The pupil who is absent from school should be con- 
scious that he is missing something — not enjoying a 
reprieve. To this end, a variety of suggestions, helps, and 
recreations are offered to make the study of the common 
branches more interesting. The chapters on nature study, 
the country school as a public health educator, and what 
to do with agriculture and home science may be most wel- 
come to the rural teachers who have been struggling with 
such problems. Effort has been made to unify the work 
of the school and the home, and special consideration has 
been given to the school as a community center and as the 
stimulating source for clear thinking, good farming, and 
right living. 

Thanks are due for permissions to use quotations from 
the works of various authors. Selections from the works of 
Longfellow, Whittier, and Lowell, are used by courtesy of 
the authorized publishers, Houghton Mifflin Company. 



And he gave it for his opinion that 
whoever would make two ears of corn or 
two blades of grass to grow upon a spot 
of ground where only one grew before, 
would deserve better of mankind, and 
do more essential service to his country, 
than the whole race of politicians put 
together. — ^Jonathan Swift. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 



I Beginning the School Year 7 

II School Government . 13 

III School Punishments 24 

IV Beautifying the Schoolroom 30 

V Awakening Interest in School 36 

VI Conducting Recitations 43 

VII The School as a Community Center .... 48 

VIII The Class in Reading 63 

IX Teaching Arithmetic 73 

X History in the Grades 81 

XI A Talk with the Grammar Teacher .... 87 

XII . With the Geography Class 94 

XIII Physical Training and Hygiene no 

XIV Literature and Composition 123 

XV The School Library 134 

XVI Nature Study 142 

XVII What to do with Agriculture 173 

XVIII Home Science 207 

XIX School Recreations and Amusements .... 230 

XX Duties of Parents and Teachers 236 

XXI The Rewards of the Successful Teacher . . 244 



If angels ever visit our earth and hover unseen around the gatherings 
of mortals to survey their actions and contemplate their destiny as affected 
by human instrumentality, it seems to me there can be no spectacle so 
calculated to awaken their interest and enkindle their sympathy as when 
they see the young gathering together from their scattered homes to receive 
an impress for weal or woe, from the hand of him who has undertaken to 
guide them, David P. Page. 



THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL 
AND THE COMMUNITY 

CHAPTER I 
BEGINNING THE SCHOOL YEAR 

The first day of school is perhaps the most critical day 
of the year, for much depends upon a good beginning. 
Before opening a school, the wise teacher has clearly in 
mind a general plan of what she intends to accomplish. 
Perhaps in no other enterprise is a little forethought of so 
much advantage. Even an experienced teacher would be 
confused if suddenly placed, without plans, before half a 
hundred eager children awaiting occupation and direction. 
They have come full of interest in the prospects of the new 
school, and most of them are ready to engage cheerfully in 
whatever plans the teacher may have to propose; but they 
will soon be equally as ready to arrange and carry into 
effect their own plans of disorder and misrule, should they 
find that there is no definite system to be introduced. 

Glance back upon your own school days. Do you not 
remember how eagerly you awaited the advent of the new 
teacher? How carefully you "sized her up," and then 
retired under some shady tree or behind the woodpile to 
discuss what you thought she would or would not do! 
Then when the bell summoned you into the schoolroom, 
how narrowly you watched for some sign of defect or 

7 



8 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

weakness! And at last, when you hastened home at 
night, there was not a child who had not a definite answer 
to his parents' question, "What do you think of your new 
teacher?" Children are good judges of human nature, 
and you know you were seldom mistaken in your first 
estimate. This recollection of your own experience as a 
pupil should lead you to spare no pains to make the first 
day in the schoolroom the most successful of the year. 

A teacher was once engaged to teach in a country district 
several miles from her home. She was not acquainted in 
the neighborhood, and knew nothing of the reputation of 
the school until it was announced that she was to teach 
there. Then her friends and acquaintances began to tell 
her all sorts of stories, both true and false. They said 
that the children were ungovernable, that the last three 
teachers had actually been driven away, and many other 
things equally disconcerting. For a time she regretted 
taking the school; but she was not easily discouraged, and 
determined that she, at least, would not be defeated. 

She spent a great deal of time and thought in preparing 
for the new work. She wished very much to call upon the 
patrons in her new field, but being unable to do so, she 
contented herself by going very early to the schoolroom on 
the first morning. She had previously visited the room, 
and had then called upon the president of the board, re- 
questing him to make some repairs. He had cheerfully 
consented to do this, and so she found everything in 
excellent condition. 

She busied herself for an hour in putting things about 
her desk in order, arranging books and the few pictures 
which she had brought, placing copy work upon the board, 



BEGINNING THE SCHOOL YEAR 9 

and getting things ready for the pupils. She had taken the 
register and class records home with her after her first 
visit, and by careful study had been able to make a speci- 
men program which she thought might serve temporarily. 
She had just finished writing this upon the board when a 
group of children entered. 

For the next hour, she moved about among them, talking 
pleasantly, and by nine o'clock she felt that she had made 
some friends and created a feeling of good fellowship. At 
first her friendly advances were received very stifHy. 
Evidently the pupils were not used to being treated as 
companions, and they eyed her in surprise; but soon they 
were ready to meet her more than half way, and several 
times during the hour she overheard snatches of favorable 
comment. 

Promptly at nine o'clock she rang the bell, and as soon 
as the pupils were seated, she called upon one of the older 
girls, who she had learned was organist for the church 
services held in the building every Sunday, to take the 
place at the organ. They sang "America," but the result 
was far from satisfactory, as not more than half a dozen 
voices joined in. Then the teacher addressed the children, 
saying that with their help she hoped to make that term 
of school highly successful. She pointed out to them her 
one rule which she had framed and hung above the black- 
board behind the table. It was very short: "Do right." 
She then told them a good story, after which they sang 
a familiar working song. 

The teacher had prepared busy work for each grade, and 
soon every pupil was provided with something to do. Then 
she moved quietly about, keeping a watchful eye over all, 



lO THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

taking the names, and arranging the classes for that session. 
As soon as any pupil showed signs of neglecting his work and 
getting into mischief, she promptly called at his seat and 
inspected his work. If it was well done, she praised his 
efforts and supplied him with other employment; if it was 
poorly done, she requested him firmly but kindly to try 
again. Supplied with the right kind of work before they 
had time to provide a wrong one, most of the pupils settled 
busily to work, and it was time for recess before they were 
aware of it. She avoided administering reproof in public, 
and so only the very few of the pupils she had reproved 
knew that she had whispered gentle reminders. In all cases, 
the hint was effectual. As she sat wearily in her chair at 
recess, she wondered if she would be able to maintain this 
strict watch until the necessity for it should no longer 
exist. 

The session after recess was devoted to reading and 
history. As there were about thirty-six pupils studying 
reading, she could not possibly pronounce words for all; so 
she asked a bright young girl in the fifth grade to pronounce 
words for her in the four lower grades, adding that each 
pupil must make three copies of each word, thus preventing 
any fun over asking words. By having a helper passing 
about the room, she herself was able to give her entire 
attention to the classes and to maintain a general watch 
over all. The session passed fairly well. About 11:20 
when the pupils were becoming restless, she had them lay 
aside their work and practice for a few minutes the first 
stanza of a lively motion song which she had written upon 
the board. Then she told them an interesting story, and 
all turned to their work again refreshed and eager. 



BEGINNING THE SCHOOL YEAR II 

In this way the first day and many other days passed. 
There were times when affairs did not glide so smoothly, 
but the rebellions were few and of short duration. At 
the close of a month, she had the satisfaction of hearing 
one of the older girls, the daughter of one of the directors, 
say to her: "I told pa when I went home the first day that 
we had got a teacher this time. We all agreed before you 
had been here half a day that we would have to come to 
time. Ben said before school that morning that he 
guessed we had got to the end of our rope, but I told him 
let's begin with all our old tricks and see what you would 
say. So we did, but we didn't try very long because we 
knew it wouldn't do any good: besides you're the only 
teacher we ever had who treated us as though it rested 
with us to make the school good. I thought that was the 
teacher's business." 

Let us, then, begin the year's work with well-laid plans, 
and resolve to keep the pupils so busy that they will not 
have time to think of mischief. The following rules will 
be found of material help: 

Make the schoolroom homelike and pleasant. Interest 
the children in the decorations, and in collecting specimens 
for the various cabinets and for the satisfying of their 
own curiosity. 

Consider your scholars as reasonable and intelligent 
beings, and, in correcting faults, take such a course as will 
promote cheerfulness and a disposition to try to amend. 

Reproof should be administered kindly and very seldom 
in pubHc. Never manifest anger, but show firmness and 
decision. Be very slow to believe that a pupil has done 
wrong, and never compare one child with another. 



12 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMITNITY 

If a child is indolent, exercise ingenuity to occupy him 
pleasantly in some useful employment, and then commend 
him for his industry. 

Remember that a little ''thank you" is not out of place 
in the schoolroom. 

"Do right" is the only rule necessary to give the pupils. 
This allows the teacher the largest discretionary power. 
All children have a fairly well-defined sense of right and 
wrong. Don't worry pupils with one hundred little rules 
concerning the things they must or must not do. 

Don't be hasty and impatient, or let little wrongs pass 
unnoticed. 

Don't tell pupils to do a thing, and change your mind 
before they begin. They will never thoroughly under- 
stand you at this rate. 

Determine to succeed, and be not easily discouraged. 

Work away! 
For the Master's eye is on us, 
Never off us, still upon us. 

Night and day. 

Work away! 
Keep the busy fingers plying, 
Keep the ceaseless shuttles flying; 
See that never thread be wrong; 
Let not clash or clatter round us, 
Sound of whirring wheels confound us; 
Steady hand! let woof be strong 
And firm, that has to last so long! 
Work away! 



CHAPTER II 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 

Order is heaven's first law, and it is scarcely more essen- 
tial to the peace and harmony there, than it is to the 
happiness and success of a school. If, then, order is of so 
much importance, the ability to secure and maintain it 
must be one of the essential qualifications of a good teacher. 
Many fail in government; and this failure can usually be 
traced to some defect in the mental or moral culture of the 
teacher. Let us consider some requisites for good government. 

"He that reigns within himself and rules passions, desires, 
and fears, is more than king."^ The teacher who is not 
complete master of herself will certainly fail to master 
others. Often her patience will be most severely tried in 
school; in fact, she cannot expect the current of affairs to 
run smoothly for a single day. She should be prepared for 
this, and thus be able to master her temper; for nothing 
will weaken authority so much as an exhibition of anger. 
If she finds she cannot exercise this self-control, she should 
seek other employment, for she is certainly unfit to be 
entrusted with the training of children. 

Having gained self-command, let the teacher next con- 
sider her manner. Some teachers are so frivolous with their 
pupils that they can never command with authority or 
gain respect. There are others who are constantly finding 
fault, scolding, and nagging. Such teachers cannot hope 

^ Henry Calderwood. 

13 



14 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

to gain the affection of their pupils; and without securing 
this, government will not be of the right kind. The 
teacher should endeavor to cultivate the true spirit of 
kindness and a desire to be useful. Courtesy as well as 
dignity is essential. "We must be as courteous to a child 
as to a picture; give it the advantage of the best light. "^ 

Much depends on making the pupils feel that the rules 
and regulations are for their own good, and not to gratify 
the whims or caprices of the teacher. Most pupils really 
prefer order to disorder, and they do not respect the teacher 
who fails to maintain authority. One object of discipline 
is to secure a sufficient degree of order and quietness to 
enable the pupils to pursue their studies without inter- 
ruption; but the higher aim is to train the will, and teach 
the pupils self-control. Cheerful obedience, respect for 
law and order, a hearty acquiescence in whatever is good for 
the entire number, are characteristics of a school which is 
well governed. 

The management of the school requires both tact and 
skill on the part of the teacher. Tact, in gaining the 
necessary confidence and good will of the parents, involves 
a large amount of common sense; for parents do not 
always see their children's faults as the teacher does. The 
management must be firm and unvarying; there must be 
the same spirit and the same requirements every day of 
the term. If a teacher punishes to-day what she tolerates 
to-morrow, she cannot expect obedience. The teacher 
who said to her pupils: "I've got a bad headache, and you 
had better all look out to-day for I feel very cross," might 
better have dismissed her pupils until she felt able to teach 

* Oliver Wendell Holmes. 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT I 5 

them. Quite often the pupils have to suffer because the 
teacher has indigestion, or has been out late, or is feeling 
somewhat indisposed. 

Always convince your pupils that you mean what you 
say; but if you punish them, by no means give them any 
chance to feel the undercurrent, "I'll show you that I mean 
to have my way." 

Observe the strictest impartiality. Each child has a 
right to the best which the school affords in government as 
well as instruction. One cannot help liking a bright-faced, 
neatly-dressed little boy with clean hands and face better 
than an unmannerly urchin with black hands, grimy face, 
and uncombed hair. Yet, if a teacher wishes to succeed, 
she must be very careful not to show this preference. 
Each child has a soul, and the teacher is responsible to the 
Great Teacher for the way in which she attempts to mold 
it. Few teachers realize the importance of their work. 

In almost every school there are pupils who are backward 
or dull, or who may have some physical defect. The 
teacher should be very careful in the treatment of such 
pupils. She should try to enter into the feelings of their 
parents; encourage rather than crush them. One teacher 
had in her schoolroom two children who could not speak 
plainly. Their talk was almost unintelligible. For this 
failing, which was a misfortune rather than a fault, the 
teacher punished them in various ways. She even resorted 
to whipping when other means failed. Such treatment not 
only failed to produce the desired effect, but made those 
children despise her and everything connected with school 
work. It also weakened her authority over the other 
pupils, and she therefore failed to govern the school. 



1 6 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

Above all, a teacher must be a scholar, and if she is to be 
a teacher of real power, she must have wide and accurate 
scholarship. " It is the man who takes in who can give out. 
The man who does not do the one soon takes to spinning 
his own fancies out of his interior, like a spider, and he 
ensnares himself at last as well as his victims."^ 

The teacher should thoroughly know and understand 
what she expects to teach. She should go to her class so 
full of her subject that if she were deprived of the textbook 
she could conduct the recitation without difficulty. Im- 
agine a teacher of geography trying to hear a recitation 
with a finger on the map, and as soon as she asks a question, 
starting out to find the answer. It seems ridiculous, but 
how often is this very thing seen in the schoolroom. Study 
diligently that you may be able to teach with enthusiasm 
and power; remember that it is the master who makes the 
school. 

Having considered the five things that distinguish a 
good teacher — character, sympathy, firmness, common 
sense, and knowledge — let us discuss some methods of 
securing good order. 

First of all, be careful of the early impressions that you 
make. Begin as you expect to hold out. Be natural; 
children are good readers of character and are quick to see 
through a mask of affectation. If you wish to win the love 
of children, you must first gain their respect. If you have 
been told before beginning a school that certain pupils are 
bad characters, that you must watch them or they will give 
you trouble, remember it if you must, but don't let them find 
out that you suspect them. Treat them the same as the other 
* Dr. John Brown. 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 1 7 

pupils; try to win their affection. In nine cases out of ten 
they will give you no trouble. 

A teacher once taught a country school that had the 
reputation of being a "bad one." The director told her 
that if she could get along with two of the pupils, a boy and 
a girl, she would have no trouble, as those two controlled 
the school. The first morning came; she had no difficulty 
in recognizing the two. The girl, or young lady as she 
might have been called had her actions been ladylike, 
marched boldly into the schoolroom, removed hat, jacket, 
and rubbers, threw them on a seat, and then ordered one 
of the little girls to carry them into the hall. She kept 
three or four little girls busy waiting on her for some time. 
In response to the teacher's "Good morning," she gave a 
cool stare and an unintelligible mutter. 

Nothing daunted, the teacher sat down by her, made 
some remarks about the pleasant weather, and then 
asked about the classes, the number of pupils in each, and 
the books that were used. At first the girl bristled like a 
porcupine, gave the briefest of answers, and watched the 
teacher narrowly; finally, as she was made to feel quite at 
ease, she answered more ci\'illy. In a few minutes the 
teacher left her and went about some work, knowing all 
the time that her slightest movement was being watched 
and that once or twice some of the other pupils had been 
prompted to do something annoying. She felt a little 
relieved when she heard the girl say to the boy when he 
entered: "Bet a cooky, Jim, we've got a teacher that 
knows something this time." 

A loud laugh was the answer of this overgrown boy of 
fifteen as he swaggered across the room. 



1 8 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

"Mornin'/' he called as he passed the teacher's desk. 

''Good morning," returned the teacher, ''I'm glad you 
have come. I was in need of some one to help move seats." 

He gazed impudently at her with open mouth. She 
paid no attention to him, but pointed out the seats to be 
moved. He hesitated a minute and then went to work. 
She kept him busy for nearly a quarter of an hour and 
then thanked him for the way he had done the work. 
A short time after, through the open window, she heard him 
reply to a small boy: "She's a brick; and you'd better 
'tend to lessons or you'll get your jacket tanned!" 

For a month or more the teacher had to maintain a pretty 
close watch over these two, but after that they caused her 
no trouble and she could not have wished for better pupils. 
She had managed to win their affections and to create in 
them a desire for improvement. Under her careful guid- 
ance they fitted themselves for country school diplomas, and 
both entered a neighboring high school. Later the young 
man took the short course at his State University, and 
became one of the most practical, up-to-date young farm- 
ers of his section. The girl was graduated from a busi- 
ness college and is to-day a successful business woman. 

The pleasure which comes from well-doing because it is 
right should be constantly in the mind of the pupil. Teach- 
ers should always encourage truthfulness. There is a 
conventional sense of honor among schoolboys which binds 
them not to inform the teacher of the misdeeds of their 
mates. The wise teacher uses tact in modifying the 
school code so as to draw a line of distinction between minor 
matters that belong to the tattling order, and the graver 
offenses that concern the welfare of the school. 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT IQ 

Among the many enemies of good order may be men- 
tioned whispering, idleness, litter on desks and floor, class 
interruptions, unnecessary questioning, general confusion 
in studying and in moving about the room. Since the 
organization of the first school, teachers have, at times, 
found difficulty in settling these questions. Here are some 
devices that have been tried and proved successful. 

1. Deportment. If you are teaching in the lower grades, 
and wish to abolish that "whispering bugbear," draw 
along the top of the blackboard a five-pointed star for each 
pupil. Each point represents a school day. At the close 
of each day, call the roll; if any one is imperfect, color the 
point in his star that represents that day. The pupils, 
having a natural desire to appear well in each other's eyes, 
will strive earnestly to keep their stars bright. Should 
there be a pupil who does not care for public opinion, who 
allows all the points of his star to become colored, he must 
be punished in some way. 

In advanced grades, the following plan has been very 
successful. Watch any pupil who idles away his time, 
and enter the number of minutes which he loses opposite 
his name in the class book. When the minutes amount 
to ten, require him to make up the time at recess. 
Assign a sufficiently hard task so that he will not care to 
repeat it. 

2. For idleness, a very simple remedy usually effects a 
cure. If a child will not work in school time, let him under- 
stand that he must work while the others play. Do not 
merely require him to keep his seat; see that he uses his 
time properly. Of course, there are extreme cases which 
cannot be reached by this plan. 



20 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

The "star" plan has also been successfully tried for the 
prevention of idleness. For example, suppose that the 
pupils of the first grade are endeavoring to read as perfectly 
as possible. Each pupil should have a five-pointed star. 
Every mistake makes a cross in the point for that day. 
Five crosses destroy a point, and it must be erased. In- 
stead of allowing pupils to ask to have unknown words 
pronounced, have each pass to the board and write the 
word under his star. As soon as the class is called, pro- 
nounce the words and drill upon them for a few minutes. 
For a part of the next lesson, each pupil must be required 
to spell the words written under his star. At the end of 
the week, the pupils who have whole stars should be allowed 
some favor. It is a good plan to allow them to have a 
"play afternoon" Friday. They should be excused from 
regular lessons, and be permitted to do paper cutting, weav- 
ing, drawing, and similar recreations. 

The following is a simple device which will be of interest 
to small pupils. Draw a beehive upon the board. Have a 
talk with the pupils about bees, dwelling at some length 
upon the workers and the drones. Then suggest that they 
pretend the schoolroom is a hive. Tell them that they may 
be the workers and drones, and that you will be the queen 
and direct their work. Then tell them that you will write 
the names of the drones in the lower part of the hive, while 
the busiest bees will have their names at the top. This 
will create much interest and the children will work hard 
to get their names at the top of the hive. 

3. For neatness. In the primary grades, it is a good plan 
to draw a dustpan upon the board. Tell the children that 
it is for the pupils who do not keep their desks and the floor 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 21 

near them neat and clean. Then, if any one leaves his 
desk in confusion, or scatters paper on the floor, or brings 
in mud, put his name in the dustpan. In the advanced 
grades, a few general talks on neatness, and a private per- 
sonal reminder to those in need, will usually be effectual. 
It should always be understood that if any one makes un- 
necessary litter about his desk, he must sweep it up. 
Teachers are often inclined to neglect these things, espe- 
cially if they do not have to do the janitor work. This 
ought not to be; nothing spoils the appearance of a room so 
much as a litter of dust, pencil scrapings, and torn papers. 
The principles of good housekeeping are just as necessary 
in the schoolroom as in the home. 

4. Interruptions. Pupils should be allowed the largest 
liberty possible without infringing on the rights of others. 
It is not necessary for pupils to request permission to drink, 
to leave the room, or to attend to other schoolroom duties. 
They should have perfect freedom so long as they respect 
their privilege. Abuse of any privilege should always be 
followed by privation. Pupils should be expected to attend 
to such things after the five minute bell at recess rings. 
They will willingly do this if they are requested and en- 
couraged to do so. If pupils are troublesome about leaving 
the room, require them to register their names on the black- 
board and in some cases to make up two or three minutes 
at recess. 

Teachers should not allow pupils to interrupt during 
class periods. In the lower grades, where it is hard for 
pupils to study without more or less assistance, it is a good 
plan to appoint one of the older pupils as helper for a session. 
The helper should pass quietly about the room giving such 



22 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

assistance as is necessary. Of course this helper should 
not be expected to help those in the same grade. The 
helper should always be chosen from the pupils who have 
had the best lessons, or who have been the highest in de- 
portment. Pupils will think this quite a privilege, and will 
put forth a good deal of effort to become a helper. 

5- Avoiding confusion. Whenever possible, the pupils 
should be seated in grades so that it will not be necessary 
for them to change their places to recite. If the class is 
seated, when a pupil is called upon to recite he should 
stand. This develops self-confidence and more fully 
attracts the attention of the class. It is a good plan to 
have plenty of written work in connection with the recita- 
tion, allowing a part or all of the pupils to recite from 
the blackboard. 

There are so many ways of conducting a recitation and 
presenting the different subjects that it would be impossible 
to make more than a passing mention of them. No live 
teacher need fail frequently to surprise her class with a 
new method of conducting a recitation. Many boarding- 
house keepers through lack of originaHty fail to please their 
patrons. They prepare the same thing in the same way 
day after day; and no matter how palatable a dish may be, 
one grows tired of seeing it too often. The same is equally 
true in teachmg; teachers must vary their plan of doing 
things. Children will soon become tired of a teacher who 
has one and only one way of going at things. When stu- 
dents complain that they do not like to go to school, it is 
usually quite certain that their teacher lacks originaHty 
and the skill to arouse a lively interest in them. Aim to 
keep them awake and on the lookout. The arrangement 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 23 

and length of recitations are matters of judgment to be 
modified according to conditions. When one class is re- 
citing, be sure that the others have something to do and 
that they do it. If the school is a large one, do not attempt 
to hear daily recitations in everything, but alternate the 
studies of the more advanced pupils. Economize time 
and instruction by means of as many general exercises as 
possible, in which all except the youngest pupils can join; 
such as drill exercises in the fundamental operations, mental 
arithmetic exercises, the spelling of common words, short 
compositions, minute speeches, review questions on the 
leading facts of geography and history. 

Chief of the teacher's mottoes should be, "A time for 
everything, and everything in its time." Teaching under 
such circumstances becomes a delightful employment. 



CHAPTER III 
SCHOOL PUNISHMENTS 

"Punishment is pain inflicted upon the mind or body 
of an individual by the authority to which he is subject, 
with a view either to reform him, or to deter others from 
the commission of offenses, or both."^ It is necessary for 
the inflicter of punishment to have one of these worthy 
objects in view. Punishment for the sake of retaUation is 
not punishment; it is revenge. 

Punishments may be divided into two classes: those 
which address themselves directly to the mind, as privation 
from privileges and loss of liberty, and those which address 
the mind through the body, as requiring the pupil to take 
some painful attitude, inflicting bodily chastisement, and 
the like. 

With the above classification in mind, let us first con- 
sider some of the improper modes of punishment. There 
are some punishments which are always wrong; such as 
pulling the ears, striking the pupil over the head, or pulHng 
the hair. A pupil must love his teacher very much to be 
able to control his temper at such insults. Possibly in one 
case in a hundred such treatment might induce the pupil 
to reform, but in the other ninety-nine the seeds of rank 
rebellion would be sown. The very mode of punishment 
leads the pupil, not to consider that he has interfered with 
the best interests of others, but to dwell upon the insult 

' David P. Page. 

24 



SCHOOL PUNISHMENTS 25 

offered to his person, and creates in him a desire to get even 
with that teacher. Then, there are those old-time punish- 
ments, which, as we rarely see them now, deserve only a 
passing thought, such as holding a nail in the floor, sitting 
on nothing, or holding a heavy book at arm's length. Such 
punishments could never produce good results. The 
pupil might submit, and he might abstain from similar 
offenses, but it would be the submission of self-preser- 
vation, not of penitence. 

Ridicule is another weapon that should never be used. 
It often causes more pain than he who uses it imagines; 
especially if some physical defect or mental incapacity is 
used as the subject. It is the modest, conscientious child 
that is most affected. Indolent and vicious children are 
usually hardened by ridicule. Another strong objection 
is the feeling it induces between pupil and teacher. The 
teacher, conscious that he has injured the child, will find it 
hard to love him ; while the child loses his confidence in the 
teacher, who should be his best friend in the school. The 
strongest objection of all to the use of ridicule is the feeling 
it calls forth in the school. Those who participate in the 
laugh thus excited are under the influence of no very 
amiable motives. And, where this is carried so far as to 
allow the schoolmates of the pupil to hiss and point their 
fingers in scorn, the most deplorable spirit of self-righteous- 
ness is cultivated. 

The entire school should never be punished for the faults 
of a few. To deprive the room of the recess or to detain 
everyone after school is never wise. If a fault has been 
committed and you are not sharp enough to single out the 
culprits, let it pass with as little notice as possible. 



26 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

Another very familiar mode of punishment, and perhaps 
the worst of all, is the continual nagging, faultfinding, 
threatening, and scolding in which some teachers are prone 
to indulge. There is a physiological law that the exercise 
of any organ will give it greater development. It follows 
then, that those who once begin to scold are fortunate if 
they stop short of high attainment in the art. Usually, 
too, the more a child is scolded the harder his heart becomes. 
A blacksmith who had been accustomed to scold his family, 
was one day attempting to harden a piece of steel; but 
failing after two or three attempts, his son who had been 
watching him exclaimed, "Scold it, father, scold it; if that 
won't harden it, nothing else will!" The ability to control 
the "unruly member" is a virtue which every teacher 
should cultivate. 

Every teacher's mind should be settled as to what punish- 
ments are proper, so that, when they are administered, it 
can be done with an honest conviction of the performance 
of duty. Among proper punishments, the following may 
be mentioned: 

1. Kind reproof administered in private. There is an 
objection to reproving the pupil pubHcly, on the ground 
that the pupil's natural spirit of obstinacy will rise to resist 
this show of authority. Many a bad boy or girl has been 
reformed by a kind talk from the teacher in private, for 
such talks are rarely forgotten. 

2. Loss of privileges. If a pupil abuses his privileges it 
is certainly right to deprive him of them. Thus, if a pupil 
will not work in school hours, it is only fair that he be 
required to complete his task while others are at play. If 
he is boisterous and rude, interfering with the pleasures 



SCHOOL PUNISHMENTS 2'J 

of others at recess, he should be required to take his recess 
alone. 

3. Let the punishment be a continuation of the ofense. 

This is sometimes the best punishment of all. The pupil 
cannot possibly complain that he is not judged fairly. 
For instance, if a child forgets to keep his seat, and stands 
beside his desk, or gets upon his knees or Hes down, as 
many children do, require him to maintain that position 
long enough to impress his fault clearly upon his mind. 
A boy who had the bad habit of playing mumble-peg on 
the floor behind his seat whenever the teacher's back 
was turned, was completely cured by being required to 
play the whole of one session in plain view of his school- 
mates. 

Another boy seemed to take delight in torturing others. 
One day his teacher saw him stick the boy in front of him 
with a pin. The boy moved away from him, and went on 
with his lessons. But his tormentor followed him and 
again applied the pin. The teacher finished the recitation, 
quietly dismissed the class, and then asked the culprit to 
come to her desk. He came rather shamefaced; he did 
not know the teacher had seen him. 

"Charlie," she said, in a low voice, "did I not see you 
sticking John with a pin? " 

"Yes'm," said Charlie. 

"What did you do it for?" 

"For fun," answered Charlie. 

"I did not know that was fun," said the teacher. "Let 
us see!" Taking a needle from a sewing card on the desk, 
she pricked him on the arm once or twice. 

"Oh!" exclaimed Charlie, shrinking back. 



28 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

"It is fun, isn't it?" said the teacher, again applying the 
needle. 

"Oh, Miss Harvey, don't!" said Charlie. 

"Very well, Charlie; but don't you think it is fun?" 
said Miss Harvey, putting down the needle. Then she 
proceeded to talk quietly to him. In a few minutes he 
burst into tears. No one ever saw him torturing another 
after that. 

This plan is applicable in many ways; for, if a chUd can 
be brought to tears from grief at his own conduct, and not 
from fear of punishment, he needs no chastisement. 

4. Requiring the pupil to confess his faults publicly and 
request the forgiveness of the one wronged. Great care 
should be exercised in the use of this punishment, as it may 
be the means of cultivating hypocrisy or inducing open 
rebellion. As an illustration: A Httle boy had broken some 
of his cousin's toys. 

"Paul, tell Nellie you are sorry," his mother commanded. 
Paul stoutly resisted. 

"If you do not I shall whip you," said his mother. 
"Well , NelHe, I'm sorry," snapped Paul, and then aside, 
"Don't care; I ain't sorry either." 

5. Corporal punishment. Advocating the use of the rod 
under any circumstances will undoubtedly raise a storm 
of objections, yet when all other means have failed Solo- 
mon's sentiments can be heartily endorsed. The teacher 
should be particularly careful not to whip a child unless she 
is certain she can control her own temper; and then, she 
should be careful to use a proper instrument, and a proper 
mode of infliction; and, having considerately undertaken 
the case, it should be so thorough as not to need repetition. 



SCHOOL PUNISHMENTS 29 

If the pupil is at fault the first thing to be done is to 
study the case. In school government, as in the practice 
of medicine, too much cannot be said about a proper 
diagnosis, lest the wrong remedies be applied. The 
teacher should determine whether encouragement, assist- 
ance, kind reproof, sharp correction, or corporal punish- 
ment is needed; and in any case, whether the remedy 
would be best administered publicly or privately. 

Quarles's advice to parents is applicable to teachers as 
well: ''Be very vigilant over the child in the April of his 
understanding, lest the frost of May nip his blossoms. 
While he is a tender twig, straighten him; while he is a 
new vessel, season him; such as thou makest him, such 
commonly shalt thou find him. Let his first lesson be 
obedience, and his second shall be what thou wilt." 



CHAPTER IV 
BEAUTIFYING THE SCHOOLROOM 

All the surroundings of childhood should be bright and 
attractive. Yet, how often is this neglected or wholly 
disregarded! It is not a difhcult task to brighten up a 
dingy room, if the teacher is willing to expend a little tact, 
energy and labor. 

A young girl contracted to teach a country school in 
Township Ten. As it was her first term, she did not think 
to visit her schoolroom before the first day of school. She 
went to her schoolhouse alone, humming snatches of song 
all the way: she was very happy for she was about to begin 
the first chapter in her dream of dreams. Her plans were 
all made and she was anticipating a pleasant day; but 
when she slipped the key in the lock and pushed open 
the door, her dream faded and the song died from her lips. 

The sight which met her eyes unnerved her. The room 
reeked with foul air ; everything was covered with dust and 
dirt. The floor was strewn with dead flies, bits of paper, 
and moldy slate rags. The walls and curtainless windows 
were festooned with cobwebs ; the blackboards were a dingy 
gray; and the chalk trays looked as though they had never 
been emptied. 

Only for a few moments was the new teacher dismayed. 
She hastily placed her books and parcels under a tree, 
knotted her handkerchief over her hair, pinned up her 
dress, and stepped briskly into the room. She found a 

30 



BEAUTIFYING THE SCHOOLROOM 3 1 

comparatively new broom hanging up in the corner. In a 
few minutes she had freed the windows of cobwebs and 
opened them wide to let in the bright sunshine and the pure 
air. After brushing the flies and cobwebs from the ceiling 
and walls, she turned her attention to the blackboards. 
The chalk trays were emptied; the blackboards were made 
to look as clean as possible, and the erasers were piled outside 
the door to await the coming of some small boy. Then 
she disposed of the heterogeneous mass of rubbish that had 
collected about the teacher's desk, and swept the floor 
carefully. 

Fortunately, she had come to the schoolhouse early, and 
there was still an hour before school time. Her boarding 
house was only a short distance away, and she returned to 
get some wash cloths and a pail of water. The young 
daughter of the house returned with her, and together they 
dusted the furniture, washed the blackboards, and had 
just begun to wash the windows when a bevy of pupils 
entered. They stared in open-mouthed surprise at the 
transformation of the room, and the occupation of the 
teacher. She greeted them pleasantly, and remarked that 
she thought it necessary to clean the windows as they would 
want light on the subjects they were to study. The house- 
cleaning spirit was contagious and in a few minutes all the 
pupils were busy. They had no school that morning, but 
at noon the room was as clean as soap and water could 
make it. They spent their nooning under a big tree while 
the floor dried. 

The afternoon passed all too soon. United by the bond 
of common interest and comradeship, the children were 
ready to enter into the school work with as much zest as 



32 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

they had Into the house cleaning. After the day's work had 
been finished, the teacher, tired as she was, walked two miles 
to the home of the school trustee, and succeeded in per- 
suading him that it was his duty to get new shades for the 
windows, some towels, a water pail, a dipper, and a dust- 
pan. It is not necessary to tell how that teacher and pupils 
raised money to buy sash and blackboard curtains, or to 
pay for having the floor scrubbed once a week; neither shall 
we enter into details as to how they decorated their school- 
room, founded a library, and purchased several pieces of 
school apparatus. 

Every teacher should plan these things for herself; 
however, we would not advise all teachers to begin the 
first morning by cleaning house. We would advise, though, 
that they visit the schoolroom at least a week before the 
beginning of the term, make a note of what is needed, and 
visit the trustee to learn his intentions. If he does not 
know what his duties are, the teacher should tactfully 
explain, and he will usually be found willing to do his part. 
If for any reason the teacher is thrown on her own re- 
sources, she will do well to emulate the young girl men- 
tioned; for order and neatness are the first requisites of 
comfort and cheerfulness in the schoolroom. 

The successful teacher who said she made her school 
interesting by trying to make it homelike^ certainly struck 
the keynote. Memory recalls to us a white schoolhouse 
on the hill, where the teacher tried to make everything 
homelike. She even had a pretty table-spread on her table, 
and a large braided rug in front of it. There were several 
good pictures, and a rocking-chair for company; and we 
children were encouraged to bring articles that would be 



i 



BEAUTIFYING THE SCHOOLROOM 33 

useful or ornamental in the room. We enjoyed every day 
of school, and dearly loved our teacher. But we were not 
permitted to keep her, for the school board in a neighboring 
city recognized her worth and offered her a much better 
salary than our district could afford to pay. 

Teachers and pupils may decorate their rooms hand- 
somely with very little expense. Fresh or pressed flowers, 
festoons of pine, fringes of grasses strung by knotting upon 
cord, banks of ferns, trophies of cat-tails and rushes, 
wreaths, and similar natural growth make beautiful and 
inexpensive adornments. Flags and bunting make appro- 
priate decorations. Paper chains, bows of tissue paper 
embodying the school colors, pine cones, tinsel and the 
like, may all be used effectively. Very good pictures may 
now be purchased at little cost. It is a good plan to paste 
them on strips of manila paper and tack the strips around 
the room just above the blackboard. Inexpensive frames 
may be made for small pictures from colored cardboard, 
pasteboard covered with tin-foil, acorns, or similar mate- 
rials near at hand. Pretty rustic frames may be made of 
twigs. 

Every school should contain a cabinet for holding col- 
lections of woods, leaves, or minerals. It is not necessary 
to have an expensive cabinet. Pasteboard or wooden boxes 
will do very well, and almost any handy school boy will 
enjoy making a rack or frame for them. They should be 
arranged in tiers one above another, and each should be 
plainly and properly labeled. The pupils should be en- 
couraged to add to the collection. Often they will have 
friends from afar who will send valuable specimens for the 
school collection. 



34 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

Portfolio plant collections may be made very interesting. 
The sheets for the portfolio should be of the standard size 
adopted for the American herbarium (ii^ by i6^ inches), 
and the pressing and drying of the flowers should be care- 
fully done. Directions for the pressing, mounting, and 
labeling of specimens may be found in most textbooks on 
botany. Growing plants in pots or boxes will be found 
useful for study as well as for adding attractiveness to the 
schoolroom. A bracket- shelf extension of a window ledge 
will serve to accommodate these, where they may 
receive the needed air and sunshine, though a movable 
plant stand is preferable. It is a good plan to have as 
many varieties as possible, and to grow plants from cut- 
tings and from bulbs. Some seeds should be planted to 
illustrate the process of sprouting. It is astonishing how 
many grown people are ignorant of the simplest forms of 
plant Ufe. 

Entomological collections are valuable acquisitions to 
any school. Something of the nature and habits of insects, 
and the purposes which they serve in the economy of 
nature, will constitute profitable lessons for young people. 
Common beetles (pinching bugs), Colorado beetles (potato 
bugs), dragon files, bees, wasps, and other common insects 
are valuable for such collections. Insects for preservation 
are generally mounted upon long pins stuck in the bot- 
tom of very shallow boxes or cases. The cases should 
have glass covers to exclude the dust.^ 

Another source of interest and profit in the schoolroom 
is an aquarium, as it affords such a good opportunity to 
study the various forms of animal and plant life. Small 

^ See the chapter on AgriciUture. 



BEAUTIFYING THE SCHOOLROOM 35 

aquariums of iron and glass are not expensive, and will 
repay their cost in the pleasure which they afford. There 
should be no difficulty in filling them, as pupils will vie 
with each other in providing fishes, turtles, polliwogs, and 
pebbles. It is probable that the supply would always be 
greater than the demand. 

A general discussion of school furnishing and equipment 
would be impossible here. It lies within the power of every 
energetic teacher to procure many things that the board 
will not buy. By keeping in mind the needs of the school- 
room, she will find many opportunities to add to its treas- 
ures. The additions each year may be small, but they will 
all count in the end, and form a part of that large whole by 
which the pupils are taught refinement of body and soul, 
without which education is but an incomplete and unsatis- 
factory acquirement. 



CHAPTER V 
AWAKENING INTEREST IN SCHOOL 

Every earnest teacher understands that, if she would 
excite profitable interest in her school, she must teach many 
things besides the subjects in the textbooks. She must 
"light up the magic lantern of common things." It is 
necessary to wake up the minds of the children and teach 
them to observe things about them; for this is the basis 
of all knowledge. Thousands of people having eyes to see, 
see not; having ears to hear, hear not. They lose half the 
wealth of the world from lack of power to perceive. It is 
therefore important that habits of exact observation be 
formed early in life. In order that the teacher should 
know best how to proceed, she needs to observe, read, and 
think. She needs to sit at the feet of Jesus, of Aristotle, 
of Socrates, and of Pestalozzi, and to learn methods from 
the masters. 

David P. Page, in his Theory and Practice of Teaching, 
tells how it is possible for an ear of corn to wake up the 
minds m a school district. In the physical world, the 
earth, rocks, trees, flowers, fruits, beasts, birds, fishes, and 
other objects furnish an inexhaustible supply of illus- 
trative material suitable for any grade. Let the teacher 
determine what class of subjects she will dwell upon, and 
she can easily select her text. For instance, a piece of 
steel, a lump of coal, or a piece of paper could be made 
the text for adroitly bringing in the uses of metals, the 

36 



AWAKENING INTEREST IN SCHOOL 37 

uses of coal and the story of its formation, the material 
from which paper is made, early writing materials, and 
so on. 

It is a good plan to have a certain time for general 
exercises every day, when the pupils may be required to 
lay aside their ordinary work and give undivided atten- 
tion to the subject to be discussed. In every case the 
teacher must make thorough preparation for the exercise. 
It will not do to trust to chance or the inspiration of the 
moment. She must have a well-defined idea of what she 
intends to accomplish, and endeavor to make at least one 
point clear at each lesson, and fix it firmly in the minds of 
the children. Meaningless talk which has no objective 
end is a waste of the pupils' time. The teacher should 
always begin with some subject familiar to the pupils. 
Then by careful questioning, she should lead them to 
impart all the information they can, and create within 
them a thirst for more knowledge. If the teacher has the 
proper tact, she can keep the children constantly inquiring 
and observing. This is of immense advantage, for it keeps 
the minds of the children in a state of vigorous activity. 
They are incited to discover and ascertain for themselves; 
and, being thus profitably employed both in and out of 
school, they are more easily governed. 

These general exercises afford an excellent medium for 
awakening the parents' interest in school. As the teacher's 
questions grow too difficult for the pupils to answer readily, 
they will naturally inquire at home. The parents soon 
become interested, and are often as eager as the children 
to hear the next question. Very often they recognize that 
they are growing rusty, and begin a course of reading and 



38 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

study SO as to be able to help answer the teacher's questions. 
Soon the interest in the school spreads over the neighbor- 
hood; parents confer with each other, and visit the school 
to see what the pupils are doing. This secures parental 
cooperation, and the success of the school is assured. 
Another important fact is that it arouses the teacher's own 
mind. Teachers are too apt to be satisfied with the attain- 
ments which they had at the start, and soon fall behind the 
procession. 

In carrying out the plan of supplementary studies as 
here suggested, the teacher must be careful not to make it a 
hobby to the neglect of regular studies. The period to 
be set apart for these exercises should probably never ex- 
ceed ten minutes. It ought to come at some time when 
the pupils need rest, probably in the last hour of the daily 
session. An exercise should always close when the interest 
is at its height — leave the pupils "longing not loathing." 
To be entirely successful, the teacher must refuse to hold 
any conversation regarding the subject until time for the 
next exercise. She must avoid all tendency to lecture, and 
she should ask such questions as the pupils may answer 
by thought, observation, and study. Above all, she must 
be very careful not to speak lightly of the opinions of par- 
ents, or she may create a neighborhood row instead of 
school interests. 

A certain teacher once contracted to teach the winter 
term in a district school. Among his pupils were a number 
of young men and women who had little inclination to 
study, and who attended school merely to have a good 
time. The teacher realized that unless he could awaken 
the pupils' interest in school the term would be a failure. 



AWAKENING INTEREST IN SCHOOL 39 

He was a good historian and well versed in literature, and 
he determined to make this knowledge serve as the means 
for awakening the school and the community. 

The history class was just beginning the study of the 
Civil War. One afternoon the teacher requested the 
pupils to lay aside their work for five minutes, as he had 
something to show them. Then he produced a large 
picture of Lincoln which he hung above the blackboard, 
and, drawing aside the curtain which covered the small 
blackboard behind his table, he revealed a drawing of 
the log cabin where Lincoln was born. The boy was 
seated on the doorstone playing with his dog, while near 
by his mother was washing. After a little talk about 
the pictures, he questioned the pupils to find out how much 
they already knew about Lincoln. When the time had 
expired, he asked each one to find out all about Lincoln's 
life, and said that, at the same time the next day, 
he would listen for five minutes to what they had to 
tell him. 

When the appointed time came, most of the pupils were 
wide awake and interested. They did not have time to tell 
all they knew in the five minutes, and the subject was 
continued the following day. From the many times 
that "Pa" and "Grandpa" were quoted, the teacher felt 
satisfied that a start had been made toward securing the 
interest of the patrons. The general exercises were con- 
tinued; after the subject of Lincoln had been exhausted, 
the lives of other noted men were studied and various 
topics relating to the times were discussed. The history 
classes studied the general and immediate causes of the 
war; and their interest was stimulated by the course of 



40 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

reference reading marked out for them by their energetic 
teacher. In geography, they studied about the places and 
points of interest which their history mentioned, and were 
thus led to see the relation their studies had to each other. 
The younger pupils were not forgotten. In language work 
and supplementary reading they were kept in touch with 
the older ones; while the Httle tots listened to the teacher's 
wonderful stories, drew pictures of log houses, and talked 
about Abraham Lincoln. After a time, the history class be- 
gan the study of the war, and one memorable day they learned 
of the Mason and SHdell affair, and the teacher read the 
selection "Jonathan to John," from the Bigloiv Papers, by 
James Russell Lowell. The following stanzas were re- 
ceived with ringing cheers: 

We own the ocean tu, John: 

You mus'n' take it hard, 
Ef we can't think with you, John, 

It's jest your own back yard. 
Ole Uncle S. sez he, " I guess, 

Ef thei's his claim," sez he, 
" The fencin' stufif '11 cost enough 

To bust up friend J. B., 

Ez wal ez you an' me!" 

Why talk so dreffle big, John, 

Of honor, when it meant 
You didn't care a fig, John, 

But jest for ten per cent? 
Ole Uncle S. sez he, " I guess 

He's like the rest," sez he: 

"When all is done, it's number one 

Thet's nearest to J. B., 

Ez wal ez t'you an' me!" 



AWAKENING INTEREST IN SCHOOL 4I 

We give the critters back, John, 

Cos Abram thought 'twas right; 
It warn't your buUyin' clack, John, 

Provokin' us to fight. 
Ole Uncle S. sez he, "I guess 

We've a hard row," sez he, 
"To hoe just now; but thet, somehow, 

May happen to J. B., 

Ez wal ez you an' me." 

Whenever it was possible, the teacher read selections 
from good literature to interest and enliven the class. 
Among these selections were ''Sheridan's Ride," "Barbara 
Frietchie," "The Picket Guard," "Calling the Roll," 
"Stars in My Country's Sky," "Now or Never," "My 
Maryland," "Dixie." Many of the selections were com- 
mitted to memory by the pupils. On the evening of 
February 12, the anniversary of Lincoln's birth, the school 
gave a patriotic entertainment which was attended en 
masse, not only by the people of the neighborhood, but by 
the people of the surrounding towns. The teacher was so 
far successful in his efforts to awaken interest that he was 
re-employed at a considerable advance, and in the following 
fall he was invited to accept the principalship of the high 
school in a neighboring city. 

I have dwelt at some length on the plans and successes of 
this teacher, because what he accomplished may be 
achieved by any teacher who will exercise untiring energy 
and skill. Edward Thring, the prince of English school- 
masters, says that a teacher is a combination of heart, head, 
artistic training, and favoring circumstances. Happy is 
that teacher who acts the Columbus to his school and to 
the community in which he lives. 



42 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

There is a saying that "Any fool can pour knowledge 
into the head of a clever boy; but it needs a skilled work- 
man to be able to teach. " Teachers ought always to strive 
to draw out the child's interest and fix it upon worthy ob- 
jects which will abide and be of value after school days 
have passed away. 



CHAPTER VI 
CONDUCTING RECITATIONS 

The success of every school depends upon the teacher's 
ability to excite an interest in the recitations. The ability 
to tell well what she knows is a necessary requisite of every 
good teacher. In order to do this, she must thoroughly un- 
derstand what she attempts to teach. We have said that 
every teacher should go to a class so full of her subject that, 
were the textbook destroyed, she could make another and a 
better one. If she couples enthusiasm and interest with this 
knowledge such a teacher cannot fail to secure attention. 

Children are naturally imitative beings, and they soon 
catch the manners of the teacher. If she is dull, slow, and 
absent-rninded, with no interest in the lesson, the children 
will soon become stupid and inattentive. On the other 
hand, if all her looks and actions indicate that the subject 
is of importance, she will gain their attention. Enter one 
school and you may see the dull teacher attempting to hear 
a recitation. She is chained to the textbook. After read- 
ing one of the printed questions at the end of the lesson, 
her eye sets out on a chase after the answer in the text. If 
the pupil happens to answer correctly, but not in the text- 
book language, the teacher immediately reads as much of 
the text as answers that particular question. Under such 
teaching the pupils soon grow dull and indifferent, or are 
driven by the activity of their own natures to some ex- 
pedient to interest themselves. 

43 



44 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

Pass to another school. A breathless interest prevails; 
the teacher's glowing confidence and sparkling eyes betray 
her enthusiasm. Not being confined to the textbook, she 
has the use of her eyes, and is able to give, at the right 
moment, just the help which the pupil needs. Her ready 
questions and intelligent explanations enliven the class, 
and they are fired with a desire to become her equal in 
knowledge. 

The teacher should never come to the end of her re- 
sources. It is a credit when it can be said of her that she 
studies the lessons which she expects to hear the pupils 
recite. Bear in mind, however, that the pupil studies with 
a view of reciting the lesson; the teacher with a view of 
conducting the recitation. It is one thing to run over the 
lesson just before the class is called with a view of knowing 
what is in it; it is a very different thing to study it with the 
view of ascertaining what points will need explanation and 
elucidation; in what respects supplemental information 
may be given, errors corrected, and principles restated. It 
does not take much of a teacher to hear the lesson. But to 
enliven the lesson, to illuminate the chief points, to fasten 
it in the mind of the child, and to awaken within him a 
desire to know more, is the real criterion of a good teacher. 

Aside from the teacher's preparation, there are many 
minor details which need attention if the recitation is to be 
successful. For instance, if the seats are uncomfortable, 
if the room is too hot or too cold, or if the air is bad from 
imperfect ventilation, the pupils cannot give their best 
attention. The place in the room which the class is to 
occupy should be carefully selected. It must be where the 
teacher can command the eye of every one in the class, and 



CONDUCTING RECITATIONS 45 

yet it must not obstruct the view which she should have of 
the school. The best plan is to seat the school in grades. 
The teacher can then go to her class. By so doing, she 
saves time and avoids the slight disturbance that is inevit- 
able when the class is called out to "take position." 

The best instructors divide the time of the recitation 
into three equal parts: a review of yesterday's lesson, a 
drill on the subject in hand, and preparation and direction 
for the next day's work. The art of questioning plays an 
important part. The object of the question should be (i) 
to stimulate thought; (2) to provoke curiosity; (3) to 
awaken a spirit of inquiry; (4) to cultivate and quicken the 
imagination; (5) to aid the pupils in forming good habits of 
study. "Questioning is not telling, neither is it teaching, 
except as it is made to lead the pupil to express himself." 
Neither pupils nor teacher should do all the reciting. The 
teacher should illustrate and explain; the pupil should re- 
produce the truths of the lesson in his own language and 
learn to apply them. 

The manner of questioning has much to do with atten- 
tion. If the pupils are called on in any stated order, or if 
the name of the pupil is called before the question is asked, 
the responsibility for continued attention is removed. The 
best plan is to state the question plainly to the class, and 
then to call on some pupil to answer it. Experienced 
teachers have developed special plans for teaching each 
subject; and there are countless ways to make each lesson 
interesting. Only a few of these successful methods can 
be given here. 

Avoid formal routine. Children are apt to think that 
they study in order to recite. They fail to understand the 



46 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

effects of knowledge upon their lives. As early as pos- 
sible, they should be taught that books are but helps. 
All lessons should be made as practical as possible. 
When pupils realize that these are to be of assistance 
to them in their future lives, they have a new motive for 
study. 

The teacher should be careful to use language which is 
intelligible to the children. For instance: 

"How many are four and two, James?" says the 
teacher. 

The answer comes promptly: "Four and two are six." 

"Johnny," says the teacher, "proceed to the board and 
demonstrate to the class that four and two are six." 

Johnny hesitates, looks confused, wiggles in his seat, and 
sucks his chubby thumb. 

The teacher frowns. "Johnny," she says sharply, 
"Proceed at once to do as I bade you." 

Johnny still hesitates, gets red in the face, and sucks his 
thumb harder. 

"Johnny!" and Miss Blank rises threateningly. 

"If you please, Miss Blank," interrupts the big sister in 
the back of the room, "Johnny doesn't mean to disobey. 
He doesn't understand what you mean. Johnny, the 
teacher means for you to go to the board and show the class 
how to add four and two." 

Johnny looks happy again, rises proudly and proceeds. 

Often when teachers are asked to explain a thought or 
principle, they do so in language more confusing than the 
principle itself. Frequently this is done to cover up the 
teacher's ignorance. This does not long deceive the pupil; 
it is much better for the teacher to confess frankly inability 



CONDUCTING RECITATIONS 47 

to explain the point in question. At the earliest opportu- 
nity, she should acquire the necessary knowledge, and then 
explain carefully. 

Always give the laggards and dullards a chance. They 
need more help than the bright pupils. Many teachers are 
tempted to call upon the brighter pupils, especially if 
visitors are in. The bright little boy with his ready tongue 
may give the idea that he knows it all and more too, but 
often, if the shy, timid little girl is skillfully questioned, 
she may be found to have by far the best understanding of 
the lesson. 

A good recitation is the real test of the school. It shows, 
as in a mirror, the interest, skill, and information of the 
teacher, and is an accurate measure of the work done by the 
pupils. And the vital element is the teacher. The 
effects of the recitation are far-reaching. It is the recita- 
tion which finally makes a pupil a dependent, or a student 
with initiative and courage. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE SCHOOL AS A COMMUNITY CENTER 

The public school is an institution in which all the people 
should be interested. Progress in country life demands 
that its doors swing open freely, inviting hearty cooperation 
in the common cause of a better life for all. It must be- 
come a center of interest — a plant for promoting neigh- 
borliness and common brotherhood, and a fount of ideas 
on all civic questions and problems of common interest. 

We Americans have been slow in awakening to an ap- 
preciation of the immense possibilities of the school as a 
community center. But at last there is an impulse to " Get 
together, work together, stick together!" The logical 
place of meeting is the schoolhouse. And what miracles of 
transformation result! The Httle one- room schoolhouses, 
with their banging shutters, missing window glass, and un- 
stable porches, their dilapidated outbuildings and un- 
kempt yards, disappear. In their stead, attractive, com- 
fortable, well-equipped school buildings are rising. Besides 
suitable classrooms, laboratories, and library, each has an 
assembly hall large enough to seat all the pupils of the 
district, and their parents and friends as well. The out- 
buildings are approved sanitary models; the grounds are 
attractive and adapted for athletics, with tennis court, ball, 
and croquet grounds. There is a cozy home for the teacher, 
— a model of neatness and beauty. And as part of the 
equipment of the school, a small farm adjoins, where pupils 

48 



THE SCHOOL AS A COMMUNITY CENTER 49 

and teacher, assisted by the farm demonstration agents and 
experts from the agricultural experiment station, work out 
practical farm problems that are of vital use to the neigh- 
borhood at large. 

In Washington — a state that justly takes pride in its 
modern school equipments — one school building is sur- 
rounded by eleven acres of groimd, including an athletic 
field, tennis courts and playground. The school grounds 
are well planted with shrubbery. There is a well-equipped 
chemical laboratory, a mechanical drawing room, manual 
training and domestic science rooms, and a fully equipped 
gymnasium, with shower baths and lockers. The big 
assembly hall, which is the high-school study room, is a 
meeting place for all the countryside, and the scene of 
frequent entertainments, socials, and festivities of all 
kinds. 

In Minnesota are some thoroughly equipped schools 
having each a modern central building and a separate 
building for manual training and forge work. There is an 
adjoining large school farm, and considerable time is given 
to agriculture and domestic science. Once a year the 
farmers and their wives attend a two-day short course at 
the school building, dinners being served by the domestic 
science department. The schools also hold a night short 
course in the dull season, one night weekly for ten weeks. 
This is intended particularly for the grown-ups of the 
community. 

The schools mentioned, and nearly all others of such 
thorough equipment the country over, are consolidated 
schools. People are becoming wide-awake to the great 
waste of the small school. Even a one-teacher school 



50 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

modern in architecture, well kept, and in charge of a 
well-paid teacher, cannot fully meet the demands of 
modern country life. Under the most favorable circum- 
stances such a school cannot approximate the work 
that it should do — prepare the boys and girls of the 
country community for satisfied, well-rewarded living from 
the country soil. 

In many places, however, consolidation is not practical, 
and the one-teacher school must continue to do duty. 
But there is no reason why the ugly little old one-room-and- 
an-entry buildings should stand! "Beauty is not for the 
rich; neither is it for the poor. It is for all. A beautiful 
country school building, appropriately located, will exert 
a quiet but persistent educational influence on all who are 
associated with it, in school or out. Its unconscious reflex 
influence will enter into the life of the neighborhood and of 
necessity express itself in many ways. All who see a beauti- 
ful and appropriate school building are inclined to be more 
loyal to the cause it represents and less satisfied with ugli- 
ness anywhere. The district schoolhouse is the only 
building in the community that belongs to all, and in a 
definite way it reflects the civic standards of all. It is, 
therefore, important to express through it the highest 
attainable ideals of beauty and fitness, so that it may 
serve all acceptably."^ 

A splendid example is the new one-teacher building, 
erected at Orchard Lake, Minnesota, and designed to take 
care of the social, religious, and political needs of the 
neighborhood as well as its educational needs. It is located 

1 Rural Schoolhouses and Grounds, U. S. Bureau of Education, 1914, 
Bulletin 12. 



THE SCHOOL AS A COMMUNITY CENTER 



SI 



.it^y 




iiB 






L, — 



BLfe%ip:p^;. 



'^'J^i 




A New One-Teacher School and Community Center 



52 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

on a five-acre tract, which gives ample space for play- 
grounds and agricultural experiments. The entrance hall 
leads to the classroom and to the domestic science and 
manual training room; on either side of the hall are the 
boys' and girls' coat room, each with its own private toilet. 
The well-lighted library is separated from the classroom 
by folding glass doors, so that pupils at work there are 
shut off from the noise of the schoolroom, and yet are in 
full view of the teacher. The floor of the library is raised 
two feet above the level of the classroom, making it avail- 
able as a stage for lectures and entertainments. The doors 
between the classroom and the workroom fold back, thus 
converting the two rooms into a large auditorium. If the 
seats are not desired, they are readily removable. The 
building is of rough texture brick, equipped with modern 
heating, plumbing, lighting, and ventilating systems, and 
cost about $5000. It is used for union services on Sunday, 
for all sorts of social gatherings throughout the week, and 
plans are under way to have the library open evenings.^ 

Perhaps such a building could not be built in your 
district, at least, not for a few years. But are there 
not many things that could be done? "Experience indi- 
cates that with direction and encouragement upon the 
teacher's part, the school easily becomes the community 
center for all desirable cooperative activity. The larger 
interests, the wider scope and possibilities revealed in 
dealing intimately with more people engaged in a common 
cause, the exchange of social courtesies, all tend to broaden 
the outlook of patrons as well as children. Neighborhood 
differences, including petty quarrels and feuds, are lost 

* Haugen and Newstrom Company, Architects. 



THE SCHOOL AS A COMMUNITY CENTER 53 

sight of in the thought, and Hving is rounded out with con- 
tentment and a new hope."^ 

The first thing necessary is a community club. Rural 
delivery, telephones, and automobiles have brought the 
outside world nearer together, but have distanced neigh- 
bors. Start the get-together movement. Helpful mate- 
rial is available. An Iowa farm journal issues a folder 
containing a constitution suitable for a farmer's com- 
munity club, together with information as to subjects 
suitable for debates or papers, and directions for securing 
information on various subjects. It is sent to readers of. 
the paper on receipt of a two-cent postage stamp. Many 
of the state departments of agriculture furnish directions 
for organizing farmers' clubs, and supply suggested pro- 
grams for exceedingly interesting, instructive, and practical 
meetings. 

Briefly the aim of such a club should be: 
I. To increase production : 

(i) Through improved methods of cultivation. 

(2) By diversification. 

(3) By seed selection. 

(4) By conservation of soil and other natural 

resources. 
II. To increase profits: 

(i) By cooperative marketing. 

(2) By cooperative manufacture. 

(3) By cooperative use of improved implements. 

(4) By conservation of surplus products. 

(5) By providing for better methods of rural credit. 

' The Rural School System of Minnesota, U. S. Bureau of Educa- 
tion, 1915, Bulletin 20. 



54 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

III. To increase the length and happiness of human 
life: 
(i) Through studying food values. 

(2) By sanitary, comfortable, and attractive houses. 

(3) By the use of modern conveniences in the home. 

(4) By education, study, and demonstration. 

(5) By community efforts for moral and mental 
progress. 

(6) By religious and social uplift. 

Naturally the work of cooperative production, buying 
and selling, and cooperative measures for rural credit falls 
to the men ; the women concern themselves with cooperative 
study of household management, cooking, sanitary and 
hygienic problems, labor-saving devices, and enterprises of 
social, literary, musical, and artistic interest. The young 
people are reached through the latter channels, and the 
club is a convenient medium for the planning of various 
corn, poultry, garden, and canning contests for their 
benefit. Spring is the best time for these organizations. 
Get in touch with the county agent and the farm adviser. 
If there are no such officers in your section, apply to the 
state superintendent of schools for information on what is 
being done in your state, and write to the Department of 
Agriculture at Washington for bulletins and advice. 
Competition and friendly rivalry among the boys and girls 
are the keynotes of success in this work. 

One whole county in Illinois is organized into a Young 
Women's Country Club that is doing great work in com- 
munity usefulness. Each township has its own club and 
president; in some instances, where the township is too 
large for all the girls to meet conveniently at one place, 



THE SCHOOL AS A COMMUNITY CENTER 55 

there are two clubs. Each has an older woman for chap- 
eron a,nd adviser, to ''suggest avenues of usefulness, and 
to be an inspiration toward all that makes for noble char- 
acter." The girls interest themselves in many things, 
from canning-club work, charity sewing, and circulating 
libraries, to Maypole fetes. One of the directors, writing 
of their activities, says: "You just ought to see our girls 
sew. They mean business, and they work like beavers. 
There isn't a lazy girl in the club. Just now they are taking 
steps to help a girl through high school. This girl was 
graduated from our country school with one of the highest 
averages in the county, but is unable to buy books or cloth- 
ing to continue her education. So the club is going to see 
that she has these things. They love to play the part of 
big sister, and they do it so that you never think of it as 
charity, and I don't believe they do, either." Naturally 
these girls are delighted with the joys and opportunities 
of country life. "Oh, I wouldn't live in town for any- 
thing!" says one of them. "It is too lonesome in town!" 
All community clubs branch out into extension work; 
their influence begins to be felt at once in the home and 
community. As an example, the farmers' club of a public 
school in Minnesota has erected a farmers' cooperative 
laundry, which is probably the first of its kind in the 
United States. Few things can mean more to the farm 
women, in reducing the amount of real drudgery, than 
such a labor-saving plant. This club pays the students to 
test corn and other grains for the community, to make 
cream and milk tests, and soil analysis. They have a 
farmers' lecture course, at which lantern sHdes and other 
illustrations are used. 



56 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

Another such club has painted and repaired the school- 
house, provided the grounds with tennis court and teeter 
boards, supplied the schoolroom with several pictures and 
valuable pieces of apparatus. They are now working for a 
piano. They maintain a cooperative buying and selling 
organization, and a circulating library of the leading 
magazines. Meetings are held every two weeks in winter, 
once a month in summer; and there are frequent plays, 
socials, and festivals. The object of this club is just help- 
ful neighborliness. 

In Texas an organization of country women has done 
much in two years to make the community a better place in 
which to live. They keep in touch with other women, 
through the federation, and try to profit by their example. 
They use programs furnished by the state department of 
agriculture, giving considerable attention to home econom- 
ics, care of children, and the management of the sick 
room. Meetings are held at the central school building, 
which is fitted as an ideal community center. There are 
a rest room and a circulating library, shade trees, and tennis 
court. There is an auxiliary club of young women, with 
committees on Good Roads, the Country Beautiful, and 
Recreation. 

The old saying that everything needed for home con- 
sumption should be grown on the farm is just as true of 
social diversions as it is of more material things. It is 
possible to keep our boys and girls so happy and occupied 
with home pursuits that they will not be attracted by the 
doubtful advantages of the city. Social life need not be 
expected to solve the rural problem, but it points a way to 
increased contentment if rightly organized and carried out. 



THE SCHOOL AS A COMMUNITY CENTER 57 

The school must awaken to its position as the most 
honored and hospitable home in the community. And the 
burden of this reputation need not necessarily fall upon the 
teachers! Many hands make light work. Committees 
from the various clubs, the members of the domestic science 
class, and others may be pressed into service. The follow- 
ing suggestions may be helpful. 

1. Lyceum entertainment course. 

2. Plays, pantomimes, afternoon and evening celebration 
of Christmas, Flag Day, Arbor Day, Bird Day, and other 
holidays. 

3. Field meets, basket ball, baseball. 

4. School fairs. 

5. Informal afternoons, with light refreshments served 
by home science class. 

6. Literary programs, debates, and mock jury trials. 

7. Box parties, musicals, and student socials. 

8. Caifiera clubs, glee clubs, art clubs, athletic clubs. 

9. Boy scouts, camp-fire girls. 

10. Mothers' clubs, young women's clubs, young men's 
clubs. 

The time is coming when each school will have its social 
director. One town in New Jersey has two paid secre- 
taries, supplied by the public recreation committee, who 
give their whole time to providing evening entertain- 
ments, which are held at the schoolhouses. Funds for 
this work come from three sources: grants from the city 
council, from the board of education, and fees charged at 
the various occasions. At four schoolhouses in different 
sections of an Idaho city, one entertainment a week is 
given. These are furnished by a joint committee from 



58 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

the three women's clubs, and in alternating weeks by the 
mothers' clubs. 

The ladies of a consolidated district in Iowa are making 
their school an art center. In connection with two pro- 
grams given by the school, they arranged an art exhibit. 
Receipts from these entertainments, together with private 
gifts and money received from a dinner given when the 
building was dedicated, placed $300 in the art treasury. 
This was used to buy pictures of which any school might 
well be proud. They form a decided contrast to the cheap 
reproductions and calendar views found as the only decora- 
tions in so many schools. 

A country-life club of Illinois, holds an annual rural- 
school fair that is most interesting. Entertainment is 
provided by several hundred school children and home 
talent of the country. One year it consisted of a pageant 
on pioneer life, four hundred rural school children partici- 
pating. Each school had one or more floats, portraying 
scenes of Indian and colonial life, the union of the colonies, 
and similar historical incidents. At another time a 
pageant based on the history of Illinois was a prominent 
attraction. The stock, poultry, and garden club exhibits are 
splendid. Only medals, ribbons, and pennants are offered to 
prize winners, parents and teachers being urged not to place 
value upon honors but upon conscientious work. Every 
effort is made against unfair methods. Pennants and pic- 
tures are given to teachers who have the best school display. 

In Kansas is a community playground worth duplicating 
thousands of times. It is carpeted with the softest, thickest 
blue grass, and beautifully shaded. An old schoolhouse has 
been converted into a picturesque rest room and meeting 



THE SCHOOL AS A COMMUNITY CENTER 59 

place. There is a dance pavilion, a tennis court, a croquet 
ground, and a bowling alley, together with sand piles, swings, 
and seesaws for the youngsters. A pasture, next to the 
grounds, is kept in ideal trim for a baseball diamond. Every 
year there is a grand picnic, which is attended by hun- 
dreds of people. A nominal charge is made for the two 
bounteous feasts provided, the funds being divided equally 
between the playground and the community church near at 
hand. During the hot weather, ice cream and pop are sold. 
There are no special dues or regulations, but one thing is 
thoroughly understood — to take good care of whatever is 
being used. " Fun and good fellowship " is the club's slogan. 

The best rule for every community club is: Never miss a 
chance to celebrate. If your neighbors have an anniversary, 
get together and help them celebrate it; if there is a birth- 
day, get together, with a small gift, and make the occasion 
memorable. Make Independence Day, Harvest Home, and 
New Year's the occasion for community spreads. Have 
socials in and out of season. And don't forget the strangers ! 
See that everyone is invited and made welcome. Foster the 
sentiment; "Look about and extend a helping hand." 

As a practical example, in a town in Wisconsin, the 
Potato Growers' Association was planning a great potato 
show, hoping to win honors from the State Association. 
"What can we do to help?" the women questioned them- 
selves. And the answer came quickly: "Give demonstra- 
tions on how to cook the potato." It was a new feature 
for a potato show and proved highly successful. The 
potato was served in twenty-five ways, each dish being 
displayed in proper style of serving on a carefully laid 
dining table. Later, samples were distributed among the 



6o THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

audience. And the men took good care to get their share, 
sometimes to the neglect of the experts, in the hall across 
the street, who were lecturing on potato culture. The 
management delightedly declared that henceforward such 
a demonstration must be a part of the annual program. 

The agricultural extension departments of the state 
universities in many states are holding short courses for 
the whole community. Get in touch with your depart- 
ment and see if anything of this kind would be possible in 
your district. Any one who can profit by the course is 
made welcome. Time can be chosen to suit the farmers. 
Usually it is best to begin after the rush of fall work is over 
and finish the course by March first. Sometimes it is 
possible to have only a week or ten-days course. The 
hours should allow time for chores at home morning and 
evening. Farm law, special phases of agriculture, black- 
smithing, carpentry, cooking, sewing, and other subjects 
are presented by enthusiastic instructors. Students may 
take whatever part of the course they desire. 

The following topics make good subjects for club study 
and debate: 

1. A Farm Fish Pond. 

2. Saving Steps in the Kitchen. 

3. The Attractive Table. 

4. The Well-planned Meal. 

5. Need of the Beautiful in the Home. 

6. Courtesy to the New Neighbor. 

7. The Duty of a Good Neighbor. 

8. The Value of Pictures in the School and Home. 

9. Pleasure from the Garden. 
10. The Joys of Country Life. 



THE SCHOOL AS A COMMUNITY CENTER 6 1 

The United States Bureau of Education has long been 
alive to the necessity for promoting the highest ideals in 
home making, and a variety of bulletins may be had not 
only upon all the activities of the home, but upon the more 
important offices of parenthood and child nurture. Lists 
may be obtained by addressing the Public Health Service 
and the chief of the Children's Bureau, Washington, D. C. 

There are a number of kindergarten bulletins for the 
mothers, and a helpful little leaflet entitled, A Thousand 
Good Books for Children. One cent buys a map of the 
United States, S}4 by 12 inches, showing all the states, the 
important cities, rivers, and lakes. Pasted on cardboard 
it is splendid for a cut-up picture puzzle, or it may be 
used in a variety of ways. Four cents brings a booklet 
of wood- working exercises for the boy who likes to "make 
something." Ten cents gets a little book of home handi- 
craft, designed particularly for farmer boys, showing 
them how to make and repair things used about the 
place. Then there is a little book on bird houses, and 
all sorts of interesting bulletins about the birds them- 
selves. For the girls, there are interesting arts and crafts 
suggestions, candy and cake recipes. Uncle Sam is ready, 
too, with pin money suggestions for wide-awake boys 
and girls. 

A National Reading Circle has been formed for the pur- 
pose of stimulating a desire for good reading and to further 
home education. Information can be had by writing to the 
Bureau of Education at Washington. If you live in a state 
doing library extension work, some arrangement has, no 
doubt, been made for placing sets of the reading circle 
books near you. Find out about it. 



62 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

Ask for free printed lists of government publications and 
ascertain just what would be interesting to your family 
and to your neighbors. Talk about it at the club; many 
people have no idea whatever of the vast amount of experi- 
menting, researching, studying, and explaining — the real 
effort that our government is making in the great cause of a 
richer, better life for all. 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE CLASS IN READING 

"Reading has for its highest purpose to open the whole universe to 
man. It brings him into contact not only with distant lands, but with the 
great minds of the present and the past. A man who loves good reading 
has in his own being a spring of never-failing joy; there are no lonely hours, 
no monotonous days for such a person. Raging storms and snow-bound 
earth may shut out living companionship, but these circumstances only 
serve to bring him into nearer communion with the authors he loves." 

There is nothing a teacher can do for pupils to more 
advantage than to teach them to love good literature; yet 
there is probably no study in the school curriculum that is 
so much neglected. "The ability to read is the key to all 
recorded knowledge. The leading aims are to read under- 
standingly, fluently, and intelligently; to gain thought 
from the printed page; to distinguish good from bad read- 
ing; and -to form a taste for literature and the habit of 
reading good books." ^ 

Too often the teacher in reading falls into a rut and 
bHndly follows in the lead of the textbook, forgetting to 
color the lessons with originality. She neglects to con- 
sider that probably the author of the textbook was con- 
trolled in his arrangement by just the two principles of 
easy gradation and a variety of exercises as to form and 
manner. Frequently when the pupils have exclaimed 
triumphantly, "We have finished the book! We are ready 
for a higher one!" the teacher says: "Yes, we have gone 
through the book, but we do not know it well enough to 

^ Van Cleve. 

63 



64 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

leave it. We will have to review it." This causes some of 
the pupils to make wry faces, and justly too, for probably 
some of them have already been through the book three or 
four times. The selections have lost interest for them. 
They know the subject matter of each lesson and it is not of 
much moment to them if they do not know all the words. 
If the old lessons are assigned, they study in a half-hearted 
manner and the teacher is obhged to exercise no little 
vigilance to keep them at work. 

Would it not be better to allow them to lay aside the old 
book and take entirely new lessons of the same grade from 
the supplementary readers in the library? If you are so 
unfortunate as to have no supplementary readers or 
library, do the next best thing. Many good books and 
papers may be found in nearly all homes nowadays. En- 
courage the pupils to bring these. Thanks to the enter- 
prising agent, there will probably be enough of a kind found 
in the community to furnish good new reading lessons upon 
interesting topics. If all the pupils do not have the same 
lesson, it does not matter. The live teacher can manage 
this so as to give added interest to the lessons. Cut-up 
stories, numbered in proper sequence, and distributed 
among the pupils make ideal reading lessons. 

The wise teacher does not allow her pupils to "go 
through" the book until they are ready for a new text; 
she supplies and introduces the supplementary exercises as 
they are needed. She studies, analyzes, and classifies the 
lessons in this textbook and rarely follows blindly in its 
lead. The lessons in almost any school reader may be 
grouped under one or more of the following descriptive 
headings: 



THE CLASS IN READING 65 

1 . Stories which have a moral. 

2. Studies of animals. 

3. Lessons suggesting occupations. 

4. Life and institutions in other lands. 

5. Miscellaneous. 

The teacher can very easily select the reading material 
adapted to her class. She may not care for so many moral 
stories; or she may know a good story illustrating some 
precept which she wishes to impress upon her class, and 
is glad to introduce it in the form of a reading exercise. 
There are probably some pupils in the class who will derive 
great benefit from lessons illustrating kindness, truthful- 
ness, the failure of greed, the folly of hasty conclusions, and 
so on. Clippings or notes of some ethical stories are valu- 
able. The stories of the second class may easily be con- 
nected with nature study, and an abundance of appropriate 
stories and interesting descriptions of animals are ready 
at hand. "The pupils will be glad to bring in stories. It is 
a good idea to have an "animal day" and let each pupil 
read the story he brings. Each will wish to read his story 
as well as possible. Some favor might be allowed for the 
best story. The stories of the third class all hint at the 
occupations of mankind and bring together a large number 
of facts about industrial life. 

In the fourth class are such stories as, "A Child of the 
Cold," "Children of the Forest," "Little People of the 
Desert," "A Child of the Nile." Here four phases of life 
are contrasted with the pupil's own. To the child the 
information is the matter of interest; to the teacher the 
mastery of language is the center, and she governs herself 
accordingly. 



66 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

Let US illustrate a way of interesting the children in the 
story of "A Child of the Cold." During the time set 
aside for general school exercises, the teacher introduces 
the "People of the Cold," and dwells entertainingly upon 
their life and habits, relating some good story about them. 
In closing she mentions incidentally that such and such a 
grade will have an interesting lesson that day about a little 
boy whose home is far away in the cold country. In the 
conversation of the class exercise, questions bear upon the 
following topics: 

1. The place of the little boy's home. 

2. The house: its material, its furniture, stove, bed, etc. 

3. Food: what and how cooked. 

4. Clothing: what and how obtained. 

5. Occupations: his play, sled and dogs; his work, 

making thread from reindeer sinews and needles 
from bone, keeping the hunters supplied with bows 
and arrows. 

6. His day and seasons. 

7. A comparison of his life with that of the pupils. 

Which is to be preferred? Why? 

Here the teacher cultivates the thought side. She 
stimulates the pupils to think and to express their own 
thoughts. She usually follows up the reading lesson by 
having them reproduce the thoughts gleaned in a story of 
their own for a language exercise. Language and reading 
should go hand in hand. It is hardly possible to teach one 
thoroughly without calling upon the sister branch. 

The teacher manages the lessons in the other divisions in 
much the same manner. She keeps continually in mind 
the following principles: (i) that the textbook order is 



THE CLASS IN READING 67 

not fixed; (2) that the lessons may be used for more than 
one purpose, but ought in every case to be used for a 
definite purpose; (3) that every exercise should add to 
the child's power to use language and to get at the 
thought; (4) that his literary taste must be cultivated and 
stimulated. 

Methods. It does not matter whether the phonic, word, 
synthetic, or other method is used — all have been known 
to produce excellent results, if only interest is kept at a 
white heat. It is always a mistake to keep children long 
at work on short, easy sentences expressing only common- 
place thoughts that excite little or no interest. Instead of 
repeatedly reviewing old lessons, let the pupils have new 
books that will awaken fresh interest. As soon as they 
begin to read a story because of its interest their rapid 
progress is assured, and if suitable books are placed in their 
hands they will read a great deal out of school. Hence 
the value of a good school library and a teacher who is 
thoroughly conversant with the books it contains, and who 
knows just where each one may be made to serve the 
purpose. 

Teachers need not fear to let the pupils read stories con- 
taining hard words, provided they are interesting. The 
average child has a large bump of curiosity, and if he is 
stimulated by interest he will find out what the words 
mean. Let the teacher who doubts this try the experiment 
of beginning an exceedingly interesting story in the class 
and then handing the book to the pupils to read at their 
seats or at home, and see how quickly they will master it. 

John Swett gives the following illustration of this point: 
"I know of one little fellow who learned to read at home 



68 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

before he was six years old. He was not a precocious boy. 
His grandmother taught him his letters from nursery picture 
books. In some way or other, probably coached by his 
grandmother, he learned to read nursery rimes. At length 
in looking at the pictures in a copy of a children's magazine, 
he became interested in a story about the 'London Cats' 
Meat Man.' He stuck to that story for three weeks. It 
was full of long and hard words. He gave his grandmother, 
his mother, his father, and his elder sister no peace until 
he had read that four-page story through. After he had 
mastered it he read many other stories without help from 
any one. When six years old, he went to school and was 
put in the primer class. At this degradation he protested 
so vigorously that the thoughtful young teacher tried him 
successively in reading from a second reader, a third reader, 
and a fourth reader, and then wisely excused him from the 
primer class." How many of us have not seen a pupil 
made sick of reading and school generally by being re- 
peatedly drilled upon that which he already knows? He 
must be shaped and fashioned mentally after the teacher's 
own pet theory; so he listens to the "Little Johnny" 
type of story and learns to his infinite disgust that the 
character which he has known as r for so long must now 
be called the "cross-dog sound," and so on! No wonder 
he frequently grows discouraged and thinks reading a 
great bore. 

While the leading idea throughout the whole course in 
teaching the art of reading should be the thought side, or 
the quality of the reading matter; the "mechanical-mental" 
side of the art must always remain an important secondary 
consideration. The extent of drill work in this direction 



THE CLASS IN READING 69 

must be determined by the skill of the teacher and the 
ever-varying needs of the different grades. It is evident 
that some attention must be given to local training, to 
correct pronunciation, to emphasis, and to inflection. 
Then, too, such minor matters as the position of the class, 
the attitude of the pupil, and the manner of holding the 
book must receive careful consideration. The teacher 
should have various ways of conducting the recitation and 
not allow the pupils to come listlessly to the class merely 
to go through a humdrum monotonous performance day 
after day. The following suggestions may be of value: 

1. Remember that children like activity; there should be 
plenty of action in the reading exercises. 

2. Devote a part of every recitation period to black- 
board work. Have the class write dictation exercises for 
the valuable drill in punctuation and spelling. Let them 
see who can write the longest list of hard words found in the 
lesson from memory in a given length of time. See who 
can write the most about the subject matter of the lesson 
in five minutes, or ten. 

3. Have frequent drills in sight reading. Instead of 
hearing the recitation the pupils have prepared, give them 
one they have never seen before. 

4. For drill in recognition of words, let the teacher or 
some pupil copy a paragraph from the lesson, or a collection 
of sentences composed of familiar words, then have a 
hunting game. The teacher chooses the hunter and he 
selects his pointer. The hunter then mentions what game 
(words) he wants and the pointer finds it. If he fails to 
find the game, or if the hunter fails to keep the pointer 
busy, new pupils are chosen. 



70 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

5. Always make the reading lesson the basis for language 
and composition work. 

6. Try reading by commas, by periods, by sentences, 
until a mistake is made, until a certain word is reached, and 
the hke. Try reading in concert occasionally. 

7. Teach the pupils the proper use of diacritical marks. 
Have them make a friend of the dictionary. 

The teacher who would teach reading successfully needs 
to be constantly adding to her stock of stories. She should 
be a subscriber to one or more of the best children's 
magazines. Every school library should contain several 
sets of readers for use in supplementary reading. The 
following list may be helpful to those intending to add to 
the school hbrary or to their own library for desk use. 

For Pupils in Primary Grades: 

Baker, Emilia Kip, The Children's First Book of Poetry. 
Baldwin, James. The Fairy Reader, and Fairy Stories and 

Fables. 
Burnett, Frances H, Little Lord Fauntleroy, and Little Saint 

Elizabeth. 
Ewing, Mrs. J. H. Jackanapes. 
Farmer, Florence V. Nature Myths of Many Lands. 
Fox, Florence C. Indian Primer. 
Johnston, Emma, and Barnum, Madalene. Book of Plays for 

Little Actors. 
Old Testament Stories. 
Potter, Beatrix. The Tale of Peter Rabbit. 
Powers, Mabel. Stories the Iroquois Tell Their Children. 
Stevenson, Robert Louis. A Child's Garden of Verses. 

For Teachers of Primary Grades: 

Bryant, Sara C. How to Tell Stories to Children. 

Hoxie, Jane L. Kindergarten Story Book. 

LaRue, Daniel W. The Science and the Art of Teaching, 



THE CLASS IN READING 7 1 

Lincoln, Lillian. Everyday Pedagogy. 

O'Shea, Michael V. Everyday Problems in Teaching. 

Palmer, Luella A. Play Life in the First Eight Years. 

Richards, Laura E. Five Minute Stories. 

Stoner, Winifred S. Natural Education. 

Turner, Nellie E. Teaching to Read. 

Wray, Angelina. Jean Mitchell's School. 

For Pupils in Intermediate Grades: 
Alcott, Louisa M. Little Men. 
Aldrich, Thomas Bailey. Story of a Bad Boy. 
Andersen, Hans Christian. Fairy Tales. 
Baker, Emilie Kip. The Children's Second Book of Poetry. 
Babbitt, Ellen C. Jataka Tales. 
Baldwin, James. Fifty Famous Stories Retold. 
Burnett, Frances H. The Secret Garden. 
Carroll, Lewis. Alice in Wonderland. 
Donnell, Annie H. Rebecca Mary. 
Grimm's Household Stories. 
Gulliver's Travels and Robinson Crusoe. 
Harris, Joel Chandler. Nights with Uncle Remus. 
Hawthorne, Nathaniel. Tanglewood Tales and Wonder Book. 
Lamb, Charles and Mary. Tales from Shakespeare. 
Longfellow, Henry W. The Song of Hiawatha. 
Twain, Mark. Tom Sawyer. 
Whittier, John G. Snowbound. 
Wiggin, Kate Douglas. The Birds' Christmas Carol. 
Wilson, Gilbert L, Indian Hero Tales. 

For Pupils in Advanced Grades: 
Alcott, Louisa M. Little Women. 

Bachman, Frank P. Great Inventors and Their Inventions. 
Baker, Emilie Kip. The Children's Third Book of Poetry. 
Baldwin, James. American Book of Golden Deeds. 
Bennett, John. Master Skylark. 
Browning, Robert. Selected Poems. 
Bullen, Frank T, Cruise of the Cachalot. 



72 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

Cooper, James Fenimore. The Deer slayer. 

Dana, Richard H. Two Years before the Mast. 

Dickens, Charles. David Copperfield. 

Eliot, George. Silas Marner. 

Franklin, Benjamin. Autobiography. 

Hale, Edward Everett. The Man Without a Country. 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The House of Seven Gables. 

Hughes, Thomas. Tom Brown's School Days. 

Irving, Washington. The Sketch Book. 

Jones, Grace L., and Arnold, Marguerite I. Bunyan's The 

Pilgrim's Progress. 
Lamb, Charles. Essays of Elia. 
Lincoln, Abraham. Addresses and Letters. 
London, Jack. The Call of the Wild. 
Longfellow, Henry W. Evangeline, and The Courtship of 

Miles Standish. 
Morton, Cora. A Book of Old Ballads. 
Parkman, Francis. The Oregon Trail. 
Purcell, Martha G. Stories of Old Kentucky. 
Scott, Sir Walter. Ivanhoe, and The Lay of the Last Minstrel. 
Shakespeare, William. The Merchant of Venice. 
Skinner, Eleanor L. Tales and Plays of Robin Hood. 
Stevenson, Robert Louis. Treasure Island. 
Twain, Mark. The Prince and the Pauper. 
Washington, George. Farewell Address. 
Webster, Jean. Daddy Long Legs. 
Whitehead, A. C. The Standard Bearer. 
Wiggin, Kate Douglas. Rebecca of Sunny brook Farm. 



CHAPTER IX 
TEACHING ARITHMETIC 

The ability to teach any subject well requires on the 
part of the teacher a thorough knowledge of the subject. 
But more: that knowledge should be used so skillfully as 
to make it an instrument of intellectual culture. If this 
be true, the teacher of arithmetic must make some special 
preparation. 

"The teacher of arithmetic should know it by its prin- 
ciples, rather than by its rules and facts. He should so 
understand it, that if every arithmetic in the world should 
be burned, he could still make another, constructing its 
rules and explaining their principles. He should under- 
stand arithmetic so well that he could teach it thoroughly 
though all textbooks should be excluded from his school- 
room. When the teacher reflects that without arithmetic 
the wonderful exchanges made through the network of 
modern business must be reduced to the simple barter of 
barbarous times; that without arithmetic manufacture 
and manipulation of delicate or highly effective machinery 
must cease; that the almost miraculous processes of the 
chemical and physical laboratory must be suspended; and 
that without the proportion of numbers, architecture, 
sculpture, painting, and even poetry and music must all 
lose their charms, then he can comprehend to what an 
extent arithmetic lies at the foundation of modern civiliza- 
tion and contributes to the physical, intellectual, and even 

73 



74 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

spiritual welfare of mankind; then he can see why the 
teacher should be an entire master of it." ^ 

On the other hand, Dr. Arnold preferred activity of mind 
and interest in the work rather than high scholarship. It 
is certainly true that, while the possession of knowledge 
is desirable, it does not always insure a good teacher. One 
teacher succeeds where another fails, not because she knows 
more or is better prepared, but because she has cultivated 
the ability to stand before her class and impart knowledge. 
Joined with this there must always be the ability to adapt 
knowledge which the teacher possesses to the mental 
capacity of the pupil. Because a teacher knows a certain 
point and sees it clearly herself, is not a sure sign that the 
pupil understands it or grasps it. Her success as a teacher 
will depend on how she does the work of explaining. Skill 
in suggesting points of thought, in questioning so as to 
lead the understanding aright, and in placing the subject 
in the varied lights and relations which interest different 
minds is required. 

The teacher should have the subject matter of the lesson 
in mind, not in dim and shadowy outline, but in bold relief, 
with every essential fact and principle clear and distinct. 
In the presence of the class she has no time to recall the 
half-forgotten results of past study, or to pursue some new 
idea or suggestion to see whether it be truth or fiction. A 
young teacher once asked President Garfield, then of Hiram 
College, the secret of the art of arousing and holding the 
attention of the pupils. The wise answer was, "See to it 
that you do not feed your pupils on cold victuals. Take 
the lesson into your own mind anew, rethink it, and then 
' David P. Page. 



TEACHING ARITHMETIC 75 

serve it hot and steaming, and your pupils will have an 
appetite for your instruction, and you will have their 
attention." 

There has been a great deal of aimless teaching of arith- 
metic. The first recommendation made by the Confer- 
ence on Mathematics, appointed by the Committee of Ten, 
was that the course in arithmetic be at the same time 
abridged and enriched; abridged by omitting entirely those 
subjects which perplex and exhaust the pupil without 
affording any really valuable mental discipline; and en- 
riched by a greater number of exercises in simple calcula- 
tion and in the solution of concrete problems. This 
Conference suggested the curtailment or entire omission 
of compound proportion, cube root, obsolete denominate 
quantities, duodecimals, etc. Puzzles, "catches," ridicu- 
lous questions, and tricks with numbers — such as "If the 
third of six were three what would the fourth of twenty be?" 
and "Show the half of eight to be naught," are well enough 
for the purposes of play and pastime, but they have no 
place in the serious work of the schoolroom. The subject 
of arithmetic needs no such accessories to give it interest. 

We need more practical work in the schoolroom. Who 
of us has not seen in the hands of children eleven, twelve, 
and thirteen years of age examples of compound and com- 
plex fractions which were more difficult than any operation 
which any bank cashier in the city of New York has occa- 
sion to perform in the course of his business from January 
to December? The most jagged fractions, such as would 
hardly ever be found in actual business operation, are piled 
up to produce an unreal and impossible difficulty; and the 
child, having been furnished with such an arithmetical 



76 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

monstrosity, is set to dividing it by another ridiculous com- 
plex and compound fraction. He becomes so heated and 
worried over solving such problems, that he concentrates 
all his energy on obtaining the required answers, and thus 
fails to reap the benefit of any discipline which might 
result from such a complicated process. 

Many of our college graduates, teachers, and students are 
not unlike the farmer's wife, who in the absence of her hus- 
band was called upon to calculate the value of a load of 
grain which a neighbor had purchased at their farm. She 
ciphered nervously for a few minutes, blushed, and stam- 
mered that she could not do it as she had never done any- 
thing of that kind, having always taught school for a living 
before she married! 

"Teacher," said Johnny to the bright-faced young lady, 
"pa gave me an example last night. I got an answer which 
he said was about right, but he said there wasn't a farmer 
or a grain dealer in the state who would figure it that way. 
Why he solved it in less than five minutes and it took me 
nearly fifteen! Now, I want to know, isn't our way all 
right? And what makes them do that way in the book 
if it isn't the way they do in business? I don't want to 
study arithmetic at school if it isn't going to help me any! " 

"What was your problem, Johnny?" questioned the 
teacher pleasantly. 

"It was this — 'How many bushels of corn will the north 
crib hold? It is 16 feet long, 10 feet wide, and 12 feet high.' 
I multiplied the dimensions together to get the number of 
cubic feet. Then I multiplied by 1728 to reduce it to inches 
and then divided by 2150.42 cubic inches in a bushel to 
find the number of bushels." 



TEACHING ARITHMETIC 77 

"Well," said the teacher, "that was all right." 

"Yes, pa said it was," answered Johnny. "But he said 
there wasn't any call to go round Robin Hood's barn. He 
just multiplied the dimensions together and divided by two 
cubic feet for a bushel." 

"Well!" mused the teacher thoughtfully. "I never 
heard of that rule before, but no doubt your father is 
correct about it. Were your answers exactly alike?" 

"No," replied Johnny. "I had a few bushels more. I 
told father that probably my way was more exact. He said 
that maybe it was, but that it was a long way from being 
practical." 

"That's just what my father said the other night when I 
was trying to figure up a pile of wood," interrupted a boy 
who had been listening eagerly. "He said the arithmetics 
ought all to be made over and have a little common sense 
put into them." 

It is a good plan to introduce many practical problems, 
supplementary to the subject studied. Such problems are 
all the better if derived from the contingencies of actual 
business. Any farmer, artisan or merchant, in an hour of 
leisure, would readily furnish for the asking a supply 
of such problems, together with modern business methods 
of solution. Recently in a grocery store a customer 
inquired, "How much is sugar to-day? " The clerk replied, 
" Thirteen pounds for a dollar." "Then," said the cus- 
tomer, "give me seventy- five cents worth." From long 
familiarity with this form of problem, the clerk at once 
adjusted the scales and proceeded to weigh out the sugar. 
Here was a practical problem of a kind not found in 
the books, but of everyday occurrence in business. How 



78 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

many students would have been ready to weigh out the 
sugar at once? 

Said a prominent business man the other day, "I find 
it very hard to obtain an accurate accountant; so many 
cannot be depended upon to add a column of figures cor- 
rectly. It seems to me there must be something wrong 
with the school system." There is, and the system of 
marking bears a large share of the blame. Ever since he 
entered school the pupil has been taught that ninety-five 
in figure processes is excellent; ninety, good; eighty, fair; 
and even seventy good enough to pass. When he goes out 
into the business world, he learns that ninety per cent ac- 
curacy in figuring, instead of being good, is absolute failure ; 
that there is no place in the world for a ninety per cent 
accountant. His inaccurate facility in the use of figures 
gained for him much credit in the schoolroom, but in the 
store it is worthless. The fact that he knows how to solve 
the problems and can explain them with the "hences" 
and "sinces" in their proper places, is of no avail in his 
effort to retain his place as an accountant. He is inaccu- 
rate; hence his work is of no value whatever. 

The most important part of the teacher's work is not the 
correcting of the pupil's mistakes; it is rather the training 
of the pupil into such habits that mistakes will not be 
made. Many a teacher sits up at night to correct errors 
that she might better sit up in the daytime to prevent. 
Let the work in the fundamental operations be thoroughly 
and carefully done. We heard an old teacher complaining 
not long ago that a certain graded system of arithmetic 
kept the pupils too long drilling on the operations and did 
not "get them down to business soon enough." Surely 



TEACHING ARITHMETIC 79 

Llie laying of the foundation in arithmetic, as in everything 
else, is the most important point to be considered. Prob- 
ably there is no better device for teaching accuracy than 
the old-time game called ''Cipher Down." The teacher 
chooses a pupil to pass to the board and cipher; he, in turn, 
chooses another pupil to cipher with him; they "guess the 
number" and the one making the nearest guess says 
whether they will add, subtract, multiply, or divide. The 
teacher gives the numbers for either operation and the 
pupil who first finishes the work correctly "ciphers down" 
his opponent, who takes his seat. The winner chooses 
another pupil to cipher with him. This works up a good 
healthy spirit of rivalry and the pupils will put in a good 
many of their spare moments doing practice work in order 
to win the victory. 

All blackboard, tablet, and manuscript work of the 
pupils should be executed with neatness and system. 
Neat and methodical habits of written work can only be 
acquired by constant vigilance, but they are worth all 
they cost. Much of the work assigned should be required 
to be brought to the recitation for inspection. The fact 
that the work will be inspected by the teacher is a great 
stimulus to the pupil, especially in the small classes of the 
country school, and the examination of work so prepared 
will impose no great burden. It is a good plan to select a 
pupil from each grade to help look over papers. Each 
pupil should examine work in the grade below his own. 

It is well to have frequent written reviews or tests which 
are both thorough and searching. It is seldom necessary 
to memorize rules. Time spent by the pupils in originating 
processes of solution is much better employed than in 



8o THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

memorizing the author's rules and solving problems by 
them. The one makes independent thinkers, the other 
machine workers. Definitions, whether given in the 
author's or the pupil's language, should be correct. The 
general principles of arithmetic should be carefully com- 
mitted to memory by the learner. They are the first 
truths of the science, and upon his mastery of them his 
success in numbers depends. 

It would be impossible here to dwell upon the methods 
of presenting the various topics of arithmetic, but we would 
again emphasize the importance of common sense, accu- 
racy, thoroughness, and neatness in all number work. Aim 
to give your pupils, especially the boys who may be in 
school only a few years at most, a good practical under- 
standing of such business arithmetic as they will need in 
their everyday life. 



CHAPTER X 
HISTORY IN THE GRADES 

The value of history as a school study depends on the 
manner in which it is taught. Not many years ago, when 
learning history meant the memorizing and reciting of 
pages in a textbook, it could not be wondered at that the 
pupils found the subject uninteresting, and that teachers 
regarded it as of little educational value. No surer way 
can be devised to make pupils dislike history than to require 
them to begin the study from the ordinary brief textbook. 
The child should approach the study of history through 
fairy stories, myths, stories of adventure, legends, pioneer 
tales, and biographies. The Herbartians present history as 
a means of promoting patriotism, of fitting for intelligent 
citizenship, and above all as a means of moral training. 
"By means of history," says Montaigne, "the pupil enjoys 
intercourse with the great minds of the best periods; but 
he must learn not so much the year and the day of the 
destruction of a city, as noble traits of character; not so much 
occurrences, as to form a correct judgment upon them." 

Whatever instruction in history is given during the first 
five grades of the pupil's school life, must necessarily be 
oral. It then hes within the province of the skillful, 
energetic teacher to present the foundation facts and 
scenes in a series of short talks or stories which may be 
so real and tangible that the pupil will involuntarily be 
filled with a burning desire to know history. The teacher 

8i 



82 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

inexperienced in giving such lessons should begin with a 
series of short talks in familiar homelike language about 
Columbus and his discovery of America; the adventures of 
John Smith; descriptions of the homes of the early settlers 
and stories of their difficulties with the Indians; some of the 
peculiar manners and customs of the people of those times; 
the first American schools; the boyhood of Washington, his 
experiences as a surveyor, and his early training in Indian 
warfare and similar topics. Shun dates and dry state- 
ments suggestive of the encyclopedia. Search diligently 
for interesting materials in the way of anecdotes, stories, 
poems, and songs relating to the characters and scenes 
which are to be portrayed. Teach a few biographies well, 
choosing such typical men as Columbus, the discoverer; 
De Soto, the explorer; Daniel Boone, the pioneer; Washing- 
ton, the general; Lincoln, the statesman; Longfellow, the 
poet; Morse, the inventor. The birthdays of such men as 
Washington, Lincoln, Longfellow and other poets, who have 
contributed so many historical gems to the world of litera- 
ture, should be commemorated with fitting exercises. 

Many little books and stories have been written by ex- 
perienced teachers for the assistance of their fellow workers 
who do not feel that they can "make up" interesting his- 
tory stories, so that if the teacher cannot tell his own stories 
he can at least read them in a lifelike manner to his pupils. 
A suggestive list of helps is at the end of this chapter. It 
is a good plan to read selections from one or more of these 
books to supplement the talks. If time is limited, assign 
the selections for the pupils to read at home. 

If the pupils have had suitable introductory lessons, they 
may well begin the study of history from a textbook in the 



HISTORY IN THE GRADES 83 

sixth year, but the teacher should exercise great care in its 
selection. Several textbooks should be used; if possible, 
let each pupil in the grade have a different text, then teach 
history by outline. If this is not practicable, the teacher 
should place the outline upon the board for the pupils to 
copy into notebooks kept for that purpose. The teacher 
should see that the pupils are particular to fill out the out- 
lines carefully, and that they pay especial attention to 
locating all places on the outline maps. It is a good plan 
to have them hand in their books two or three times a week 
for the teacher to check. By having a variety of books, 
pupils are less likely to commit to memory the language of 
the text. Children who try to learn history from any 
single book will invariably have an inadequate and in- 
correct conception of it. In listening to teachers' opinions 
on historical topics at teachers' institutes, or in looking 
over their examination papers, how frequently it is easy 
to tell what author wrote their favorite text! Historians 
have their preferences and their aversions, and much de- 
pends upon the standpoints from which they view the 
personages of whom they write. No two writers will draw 
absolutely the same inferences from the sources at their 
command. Their work will be tinged, unconsciously per- 
haps, by the medium of their own minds and thoughts, by 
the influences under which they have been born and 
educated. In those cases in which men are strongly swayed 
by passions, self-interest, or religious prejudice, this will 
be especially true. Men of very doubtful character are 
transformed into demigods by eulogists. Napoleon has 
been called everything from hero to monster, and was 
really neither. He has been charged with infamous crimes, 



84 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

or held up as a model of kingly virtues and brilliant genius. 
Only a careful study of many texts will give one an ade- 
quate idea of this man, the enigma of modern history.^ 

Teachers should not fail to emphasize and recognize 
the value of original sources in teaching history. Ancient 
records relating to the United States are rare, and are to be 
found chiefly in great libraries. However, within recent 
years, extracts from old books and papers have been pub- 
lished in cheap form for school use. Among these are the 
" Old South Leaflets" and the "American History Leaflets." 
These may be used in class and are invaluable in forming 
mental pictures of the early times. 

Of late years, the iconoclasts have so relentlessly torn 
from the pages of history so much that was a source of 
delight to readers of former times, that we feel like inquir- 
ing. How much of history shall be left after they have gone 
through it all? "The illusions of history are almost in- 
finite in number and illusory etymologies are very apt to 
lead the unwary scholar astray. And yet, it really does 
not matter at all whether the head of Horace Greeley did 
or did not shoot up through the top of Hank Monk's 
coach; whether Peter Cartwright did or did not blaze his 
way with a hatchet through the labyrinth of corridors in a 
New York hotel; whether Zachary Taylor, imperturbable 
in the midst of the hottest fire, did not drawl out, 'A little 
more grape. Captain Bragg:' In either case the story is 
equally good. If it be characteristic of the person to whom 
it is applied, it answers its purpose." ^ 

^Mann, C. W. School Recreations and Amusements. 
^ Hubert M. Skinner, quoted in Mann's School Recreations and Amuse- 
ments. 



HISTORY IN THE GRADES 85 

Probably the teacher who had been reading a series of 
iconoclastic reports, and had drilled her pupils for a week 
on the life of Washington, carefully omitting the story of 
the cherry tree, was somewhat chagrined when the little 
fellow in the front seat piped out in answer to her question, 
"Who was Washington? " "He was the little boy who cut 
his father's cherry tree with a hatchet, and wouldn't he 
about it." What if the name of Washington does suggest 
to the small pupil nothing but a httle boy, a hacked tree, 
and an angry father, — all of which, somehow, finally made 
him Father of his Country? He is becoming interested, 
and at the age of ten or twelve, he may be taught some- 
thing of history which he can appreciate. Let us not put 
solid history into minds too young to comprehend it. Let 
us leave to the little ones the stories that enrich and 
strengthen the imagination. 

Teachers should make history alive. Teach the pupils 
to put themselves in the place of the people they are study- 
ing about. Emerson has said that we are to read his- 
tory actively, not passively; to esteem our own hfe the text 
and books the commentary. As we read, we must become 
Greek, Roman, Turk, priest, king, martyr, and executioner. 
We must fasten these images to some reality in our secret 
experience, or we shall learn nothing rightly. Let us sup- 
plement the dry, condensed statements of the textbook by 
anecdotes, incidents, stories, poems, and biographical 
sketches of noted men. Brief selections may be read from 
tune to time, either by the teacher or by some good reader 
of the class, in connection with the recitations. 

The following suggestions for class management may 
prove valuable: 



86 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

1. Have a variety of blackboard work. Have pupils 
make brief outlines of the lessons. Make hasty sketches of 
the locality which they are studying about, locating places, 
rivers, scenes of battles, and so on. Try to ascertain why 
the battle occurred at that point, and the like. Divide the 
class into sections, each to write upon a certain topic. 

2. Use the calendar plan for important events. Try 
naming the pupils after a certain colony, battle, or person, 
and let them tell their history. 

3. Have historical matches. They are managed the 
same as spelling matches. 

4. Endeavor to have a good collection of pictures repre- 
senting historical scenes and personages. The ingenious 
teacher may devise various ways to use them. 

5. Do not forget current events. Appoint a pupil to 
report the important events each day, or twice a week. 
Devote about five minutes to their discussion. 

6. Remember that history and geography go hand in 
hand. The physical characteristics of a country greatly 
modify, or even determine, its historical development. 

Finally, in the teaching of all history, let us keep in view 
the true Herbartian principle. Let us aim to develop the 
moral nature and to fit pupils to become true citizens. 

A Suggested List or History Helps 
Baldwin, James. Fifty Famous People, Abraham Lincoln, and 

Discovery of the Old Northwest. 
Coe, Fanny E. Founders of Our Country, and Makers of the 

Nation. 
Eggleston, Edward. Stories of Great Americans for Little 

Americans, and Stories of American Life and Adventure. 
McFee, Inez. American Heroes from History. 



CHAPTER XI 
A TALK WITH THE GRAMMAR TEACHER 

"Grammar proper is a science. The study of a science presupposes 
a knowledge of the facts upon which it is based; these the child has not 
yet acquired. Again, the mastery of a science requires a strength and 
concentration of mental power which are as yet only potential in the child. 
Not only is grammar a science, it is that science which brings to light and 
consciousness the subtlest operations of the soul itself. It is therefore 
not adapted to childhood, and should not be studied too early. I am 
satisfied that early and superficial teaching of a difficult subject is not only 
useless but positively injurious. How many, by too early study of an in- 
tricate branch, make themselves think they understand it, and thus prevent 
the hope of further advancement at the proper age!" 

— David P. Page. 

Grammar is one of the most difficult of the common 
school studies. To teach it successfully requires the 
highest -degree in the art of teaching. It is rare that a 
teacher is found without some pretensions to Enghsh 
Grammar; yet few are as frank as the young lady who was 
recently taking an examination for a certificate in the super- 
intendent's office. "You have three quarters of an hour, 
can you write upon grammar in that time?" questioned 
the superintendent. "Oh, my, yes!" exclaimed the young 
lady, "I can tell all I know about grammar in half that 
time." 

Grammar is not an exact science. It should therefore 
be taught and studied for breadth, not for nicety of reason- 
ing. Parsing and diagraming are mere means to an end — 
to teach the correct use of words, — not ends within them- 
selves. The average teacher sets out resolved to parse and 

87 



88 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

diagram every word to her own satisfaction, and then to 
argue everybody else into the same method. Like teacher, 
like pupil; and so the latter forms the same habit and goes 
forth to contend mightily with unbelievers. Let us do our 
hair splitting in mathematics, where nice distinctions are 
everything; not in grammar where they are next to nothing 
in importance. Such arguments are not entirely useless, 
but they are comparatively so; for the time devoted to 
them can be better employed. Few grammarians agree 
upon many small technicalities, anyway. We should get 
our English from literature, not from the textbooks. A 
young lady once asked a college professor if the authors 
of textbooks got their English from literature. "Pro- 
fessedly, yes; actually, no," replied the professor. "They 
get part of it from literature and a deal of it from their 
imaginations." 

As grammar was developed after language, it should be 
taught afterwards. It is not only true that grammar 
should be taught after language, but its facts should be 
reached through language. The young pupil best learns 
the structure of the sentence, the nature and use of modi- 
fiers, by actually expressmg and modifying his own 
thoughts. The first language lesson given in school should 
be one in talking, and all through the elementary course 
the tongue should prepare the way for the pen. Young 
pupils are too often expected to express on paper what 
they cannot express orally. "Good habits of speech are 
caught rather than taught." Conversation should always 
be made the road to composition. Dr. Emerson E. White 
divides language training in preparation for grammar into 
the following series and divisions: 



A TALK WITH THE GRAMMAR TEACHER 89 

I. Primary Series — Preparatory: 

1. Writing words and sentences. 

2. Copjdng maxims, proverbs, stanzas of poetry, etc. 

3. Writing sentences dictated by the teacher. 

4. Writing sentences expressing facts observed. 

5. Writing descriptions of present actions. 

6. Writing sentences containing one or more given words. 

7. Writing stories which pupils have learned to tell well. 

II. Secondary Series: 

1. Writing the substances of reading lessons. 

2. Writing descriptions and stories about pictures. 

3. Writing stories told or read by the teacher. 

4. Writing descriptions by answering questions. 

5. Writing business papers. 

III. Original Series: 

1. Letters. 

2. Descriptions of known objects. 

3. Narratives of personal experience. 

4. Descriptions of journeys, real and imaginary. 

5. Descriptions of current events. 

6. Biographical sketches. 

7. The discussion of themes, or the essay proper. 

Attention should be directed to the mastery of the more 
important facts and principles after pupils are well prepared 
for the study of a textbook. These principles should, one 
by one, be made familiar by continued drills. The ordinary 
textbooks present too few sentences for analysis in the 
various exercises, and as many other sentences as may be 
needed should be added by the teacher. 



go THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

Accuracy and facility in the use of language, both 
spoken and written, are the chief ends to be secured by the 
study of grammar. What will it avail the pupil to be well 
versed in technical grammar and yet be unable to express 
his thoughts clearly and correctly? It is poor policy to 
spend much time correcting errors in language. Pupils 
should be made familiar with the correct forms, not the 
incorrect. 

Modern usage, in spite of grammarians and textbooks to 
the contrary, controls the selection of words. Even the 
college professor, who had been lecturing upon prepositions, 
was forced to admit this when he closed his remarks by 
saying: "Remember, then, never use a preposition to end 
a sentence with." As a matter of fact, it is seldom that 
mistakes are made in the form of a preposition, but in the 
use of this part of speech many inaccuracies occur. 

"Come and sit around the fire, Emersonia," said the 
hospitable western relative. 

"There are physical limitations which will prevent me 
from doing so. Aunt Rachel," replied the young woman 
from Boston; "but with your permission I will sit in front 
of the fire." 

All good writing consists of good sentences properly 
joined. Since the sentence is the foundation or unit of 
discourse, it is all important that the pupil should under- 
stand it. He should know the sentence as the skillful 
engineer knows his engine, so that when there is dis- 
organization of parts, he may at once find the difficulty 
and the remedy for it. Sentence analysis logically con- 
ducted is excellent mental discipline. To study the fitness 
of the different parts of speech in a sentence to the parts of 



A TALK WITH THE GRAMMAR TEACHER 9 1 

the thought, is to learn to think. Experienced teachers 
agree that a correct knowledge of the structure of the sen- 
tence cannot be gained by memorizing complicated rules 
and labored forms of analysis. It is ridiculous to compel a 
pupil to wade through a page or two of such bewildering 
terms as "complex adverbial element of the second class" 
and "compound prepositional adjective phrase," in order 
to comprehend a few simple functions. Many teachers 
use the diagram to picture the complete analysis of the 
sentence, and analysis by diagram often becomes so inter- 
esting and so helpful that, like other good things, it is 
apt to be overdone. When the ordinary constructions 
have been made clear, diagrams should be used only for the 
more difficult sentences. 

Perhaps no study in the school course is more in need of 
diversions and recreations to make it interesting than 
grammar; and yet there is no other study for which it is 
so difficult to provide these supplementary aids. The 
following may be suggestive: 

1. Have a variety of composition exercises. The best 
way for pupils to learn language is by practice in expressing 
their own thoughts. Try giving the pupils a familiar sub- 
ject. Have them write on the blackboard as much as they 
can in three minutes. Then have them change places and 
correct punctuation and spelling. After they return to 
their own places, let them check their sentences. Parse 
difficult sentences. In all blackboard work, have the 
pupils bound a space upon the board; teach them to write 
straight lines, syllabicating properly at the end of a line 
instead of letting the word hang over like a vine. 

2. Occasionally try written analysis. 



92 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

3. Diagraming will interest the pupils, and give them 
a good picture of the sentence. 

4. Have grammar matches conducted like spelling 
matches, the pupils using questions in place of words. 

5. Try "enriching sentences." Let the pupils take 
compositions of their own, and strike out all useless words. 
Next let them shorten the sentences, substituting simple 
Saxon words for the long ones. Note the added strength 
of the compositions. 

6. Try preparing lists of nouns, adjectives, adverbs, 
and other parts of speech. Write a list of nouns upon the 
board ; have the pupils prefix suitable adjectives. Suppose 
the teacher writes "house"; the pupil writes: 

The 
old 
wooden house, 

stone 
gray 
Treat verbs in the same way. Try making a list of 
"conversational verbs"; those used in writing conversa- 
tions. Teach the pupils not to use "said," all the time. 
Among others, use the following verbs: called, prompted, 
asked, added, breathed, replied, announced, answered, 
insisted, commented, agreed, suggested, cried, urged, mur- 
mured, assured, begged, repeated, commanded, remarked, 
observed, gasped. 

7. Teach the use of punctuation marks. 

8. Give the pupils a subject with instructions to write a 
certain number of simple, complex, and compound sentences 
about it. For instance, write ten simple, four complex, and 
three compound sentences about "The Baseball Game." 



A TALK WITH THE GRAMMAR TEACHER 93 

9. Teach the use and meaning of words. Pay some 
attention to prefixes and suffixes. Use the dictionary fre- 
quently. 

10. Try the following short method for simple analysis. 

I 2 __ p. adj. p.p. 

(a) The heaV^nly gods ofj^n came to Jimmu's aid. 

I X I 2 __ p.p. 

(b) George and Mary went blitnely to t\e ni'^t school. 

T rel.pro. 2 a.c. 2 a.c. 

(c) The diamond which is pu^e carbon is X^briN^ant gem. 

I p.p. o.p. I fex) 2 

(d) One of ike sons of Ninigi, Prince Fire Fade, went 
do^n beneath tne sparkling waves of t\e ocean and 

2 __ p.p. P.C. __ 

carried ba^k to m^ facer's realm t^e jewels of ^ eb^ng 

X Q-P- 

and flowj^ng tides. 

The marks explain themselves. Note that the right 
slant indicates adjectives and the left slant adverbs. 

Finally: Remember that all grammar work must be 
practical. Aim to give the pupil a good understanding of 
English. Be sure that he can speak and write readily and 
correctly, even if he cannot conjugate the verb see in all its 
modes and tenses. Few pupils have much use for technical 
grammar after school days are gone. 



CHAPTER XII 
WITH THE GEOGRAPHY CLASS 

Geography should give the child a rational conception 
of the earth he lives on and his relation to it. This view 
of the subject has led to radical changes in methods of 
teaching geography during the last century. A glance 
into Dwight's Geography, printed in 1795, reveals de- 
scriptive text exclusively, with no maps or woodcuts. 
It opens with five pages of definitions relating to the 
natural divisions, latitude, longitude, etc., in the form of 
a catechism. The following extracts taken from a general 
description of New England illustrate the manner of 
treatment. 

"Q. What are the general characteristics of the people 
of New England? 

''A. They are an industrious and orderly people, eco- 
nomical in their livings, and frugal in their expenses. They 
are plain and simple in their manners, and, on the whole 
they form perhaps the most pleasing and happy society in 
the world. 

"Q. What are their diversions? 

"A. Dancing is a favorite one of both sexes. Sleigh- 
riding in winter, skating, playing ball (of which there are 
several different games), gunning and fishing are the 
principal; gambling and horse- jockeying are practiced by 
none but worthless people, who are despised by all persons 
of respectability and considered as nuisances in society." 

94 



WITH THE GEOGRAPHY CLASS 95 

The pupils were expected to memorize this text word for 
word. No doubt our great-grandfathers would have been 
better versed in geography could they have had our present 
day text with its wealth of maps and illustrations. However, 
the textbook is not the only essential factor. A poor text- 
book in the hands of an enthusiastic teacher may produce 
excellent results. There has been a great tendency to routine 
work in this branch, and probably variety in the recitation 
is the needful thing in most schools. It is no longer the 
sole purpose to impart a knowledge of names, places, and 
boundaries, but to stimulate thought, and to give the pupils 
something of the many interesting and curious facts, some 
history, and some folklore, that no single textbook should or 
could contain. It is the teacher's duty to supply this 
interesting material. 

Modern geography addresses itself to the youngest pupils. 
It is wrong to suppose that the child sees only his home and 
school. The sky is up above him with its sun, stars, and 
moon, its clouds, storms, and rain. He has seen the hills 
and mountains against the distant horizon. Trees, shrubs, 
and certain forms of wild-animal life are familiar. These 
things may all be described to him. For this is real geogra- 
phy, and presented in its relation to home and school sur- 
roundings, and, later to history, past and current, and to 
the various natural sciences, it is a source of unfailing in- 
terest. The recreations of which it admits are inexhaustible. 

Supplementary reading in relation to geography may be 
mentioned as chief among the many recreations. Children 
like to learn of the conditions and surroundings of people 
in strange and distant lands ; of occupations and manners of 
life unlike their own; of the natural features of countries 



96 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

which present a strong contrast to the scenes with which 
they are famihar. Suitable books for this purpose, well 
adapted to interest and instruct, without bewildering the 
young pupil, can easily be obtained. There are many 
well-known poems which can be called to mind, referring 
to geographical locations; for instance: "A Meditation 
on Rhode Island Coal," by Bryant; "The Nadowessie 
Chieftain," by Schiller; "Through Minnehaha's Veil" and 
"My Merrimac," by Lucy Larcom; "The Jewish Ceme- 
tery at Newport" and "The Arsenal at Springfield," by 
Longfellow; "The Mammoth Cave" and "Seneca Lake," 
by Percival; "Bingen on the Rhine," by Mrs. Norton; 
"How They Brought the Good News," by Robert Brown- 
ing, and countless others. "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage," 
by Byron will supply a series of beautiful poetical descrip- 
tions relating to places of historical interest in Europe. 
Narratives of travel possess a charm for young readers. 
When skillfully and naturally written, they abound in 
geographical information. Among the books in the school 
library should be some which throw light upon the subject 
of geography and afford entertaining and instructive read- 
ing. A suggestive list follows this chapter. The pupils 
should be encouraged to read at home and in their spare 
time at school. A few minutes of the recitation might be 
devoted to profitable discussion of the subjects read. 

Imaginary journeys afford a valuable and interesting 
recreation, provided they are carried on in an interesting 
way. For instance, the journey by rail from New York 
to Chicago will suppose a passage through the gardens of 
New Jersey, the coal and iron tracts of Pennsylvania, the 
farming lands of Ohio and Indiana, and the lake shore of 



WITH THE GEOGRAPHY CLASS 97 

Illinois. Much interest may be added by exhibiting 
samples of products from different localities, pictures of 
scenery, places and noted persons, by relating stories and 
anecdotes regarding prominent persons and places. 

Some physical geography should be taught in all schools. 
Where there is not a regular class, it will be best to include 
this instruction in the general information lesson. The 
pupils should be taught the use of the thermometer and 
the barometer, and should have some understanding of 
the work of the Signal Service. The whole process of 
evaporation, cloud formation, and the precipitation of rain, 
hail, and snow, may be easily explained and illustrated by 
familiar examples.^ The endless story of water circulation 
in nature is invariably interesting to children of all grades. 
In studying the climates of the various countries, atten- 
tion should be given to climatic influences, not only upon 
the occupations, dress, and social habits of the people, but 
also upon their dispositions, their character, and their 
amusements. The pupils should learn something, too, of 
the formation of the earth's crust; the long period of time 
which has been required for the formation; when the 
successive forms of life appeared, and what they were. An 
interesting talk might be given regarding the location of 
common minerals and the forms in which they occur. 
Another interesting topic for discussion is the bottom of 
the sea, and deep-sea life. 

In order that the pupils may understand poetical allu- 
sions, it will be well for them to learn the poetical names of 

1 A chart is issued by the U. S. Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C, 
illustrating the various kinds of clouds in colors together with a full de- 
scription of each kind. 



98 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 



countries. Thus Wales is spoken of as Cambria; England, 
as Britannia; Scotland, as Scotia or Caledonia; Greece, as 
Hellas; Ireland, as Hibernia; Switzerland, as Helvetia; 
Spain, as Iberia. The following popular designations 
given to some of our states will also be of interest. 



Alabama, Cotton State. 
Arkansas, Bear State. 
California, Golden State. 
Colorado, Centennial State. 
Connecticut, Nutmeg State. 
Delaware, Blue Hen State. 
Florida, Peninsula State., 
Georgia, Cracker State. 
Illinois, Prairie State. 
Indiana, Hoosier State. 
Iowa, Hawkeye State. 
Kansas, Central State. 
Kentucky, Blue Grass State. 
Louisiana, Creole State. 
Maine, Pine Tree State. 
Maryland, Old Line State. 
Massachusetts, Bay State. 
Michigan, Wolverene State. 
Minnesota, Bread and Butter 

State. 
Mississippi, Bayou State. 



Missouri, Bullion State. 
Nebraska, Tree-planter State. 
Nevada, Silver State. 
New Hampshire, Granite State. 
New York, Empire State. 
North Carolina, Turpentine 

State. 
Ohio, Buckeye State. 
Oregon, Webfoot State. 
Pennsylvania, Keystone State. 
Rhode Island, Little Rhody. 
South Carolina, Palmetto 

State. 
South Dakota, Blizzard State. 
Texas, Lone Star State. 
Vermont, Green Mountain 

State. 
Virginia, Old Dominion. 
Washington, Evergreen State. 
West Virginia, Panhandle State. 
Wisconsin, Badger State. 



Many American cities also 
poetic designations, which 
throughout the country. 

Boston, the Hub. 

Buffalo, Queen of the Lakes. 

Atlanta, Gate City of the 

South. 
Chicago, Garden City. 



have acquired humorous or 
have become popularized 

New York, Gotham. 
Pittsburgh, Smoky City. 
Lowell, City of Spindles. 
Detroit, City of the Straits. 
Pasadena, City of Roses. 



WITH THE GEOGRAPHY CLASS 99 

It will prove interesting to trace the derivation of 
geographical names. About half the states and territories 
of the Union have names derived from the language of the 
Indians, and the same is true of a great number of cities, 
towns, and counties. In thousands of instances the old 
Indian names are retained for mountains, hills, rivers, 
waterfalls, and other natural features. That many of 
these Indian names are decidedly picturesque and poetical 
in character is shown by their meanings : 

Iowa, The sleepy ones. Chautauqua, Foggy place. 

Ohio, The beautiful. Alabama, Here we rest. 

Minnehaha, Laughing water. Massachusetts, The blue hills. 

Ontario, A beautiful lake. Katahdin, The highest place. 

Rappahannock, River that Mississippi, The great and 

flows and ebbs. long river. 

Tennessee, River of the big Saratoga, Miraculous water 

bend. in a rock. 

Penobscot, It flows on the Roanoke, Smoothed shells. 

rocks. Nebraska, Shallow water. 

Niagara, Neck of water. Minnesota, Smoky water. 

Amusing accounts are given of the origin of some geo- 
graphical names. An exploring party of Spaniards who 
passed the great peninsula at the south entrance to the 
Gulf of Mexico, made a brief landing to learn the name of 
the country. An inquiry was made of the first native they 
met, who queried, in turn, "Juca tan?'' ("What do you 
say?") The investigators bowed and returned to the ship 
well- satisfied, reporting: "The natives say the name of 
this country is Yucatan." The peninsula has been known 
by this name ever since. It will be remembered that the 
name America was applied originally to this country in 



lOO THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

error, thus giving to a merchant of Seville, Spain, the 
honor which should have belonged to Columbus. 

If the teacher is a good artist, often a few skillful strokes 
of the crayon will fix outline maps of geographical divisions 
clearly in mind, by comparing them with drawings of vari- 
ous figures of similar shapes. Thus Italy is compared to a 
long hunting boot; France to an ice pitcher; New York to a 
lion; Virginia to a camel; Lake Ontario to a seal; Lakes 
Erie and St. Clair and the Adriatic Sea to a whale; the Sea 
of Japan to a rabbit; Corsica to a hand, New Guinea to a 
guinea fowl, and so on, depending upon the teacher's 
ingenuity. 

Perhaps the best way to fix in the pupil's mind what he 
has learned is by the writing of compositions of his own 
which will call out all his knowledge upon a given subject, 
and cause him to make an effort to increase his stock of 
learning. Subjects for such compositions may be taken 
from all parts of the geography. The following titles will 
show what a wide range may be covered: " Down in a Coal 
Mine," "An Adventure in a Lumber Region," "Making 
Maple Sugar," "Farming in the West," "Salmon Fishing," 
"Some Noted Caves," "The Yellowstone National Park." 

Excellent relief maps may be drawn upon the board. 
The teacher is referred to the relief maps in any good en- 
cyclopedia or geography for methods of constructing them. 
A little practice will enable the most inexperienced to pro- 
duce a fair map. Modeling relief maps of clay or pulp 
will effectually fix in the mind the principal slopes, moun- 
tain ranges, and river systems. For various reasons, it 
may not be practical to work with clay in the schoolroom. 
Pulp is more easily obtained and may be preserved longer. 



WITH THE GEOGRAPHY CLASS lOI 

The following directions for making pulp maps may be 
of value to the inexperienced. Soak old newspapers over 
night, wring out and knead with the hands into a white 
pulp. Draw two maps of the size which you wish the 
pulp map to be, and procure a smoothly planed board one 
and one-half inches wider all around than the map. Next 
make a paste of cornstarch and a little powdered alum; 
mix carefully with a little cold water to the consistency of 
thick cream; and boil three or four minutes, stirring con- 
stantly. The board and paste being ready, soak one map 
and one sheet of cartridge or brown paper, same size as 
the map, in cold water till they are saturated. Take care 
that they lie perfectly flat. Remove the map and paper 
from the bath and carefully lay them upon a piece of muslin 
in order that it may absorb the superfluous moisture. Let 
them remain to expand about ten minutes. With your 
paste brush work the paste well into the back of the board 
and upon one side of the blank sheet of paper; mount the 
paper on the back of the board. (Be careful not to leave 
much paste upon the paper, work well into the pores.) 
Mount the map on the front of the board; it is a good 
plan to place a sheet of blank paper over the map and 
work evenly over the surface with a round rule, then leave 
the work to dry twenty-four hours. Next determine and 
mark on the map by tacks or pins, i^ inches to y^ inch in 
length, the position and altitude of the chief hills, moun- 
tains, etc. Work a little gum arable or glue over the map; 
let dry and then build up the principal mountain ranges 
with the pulp. Make the ridges irregular, and none so high 
as the first point. Tool out the valleys in the hillsides. 
Build the pulp in cones, keeping each point distinct, leaving 



I02 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

the valleys to be filled in after the modeling has become 
partly dry. In making the valleys, roll a piece of pulp half 
the width of the depression, then spread until it reaches the 
mountain sides. Now make the coast and coast line; roll 
out a long piece of pulp and run one fourth of an inch 
from the coast. Pressure of the fingers will make it approach 
the coast. Smooth the pulp down seaward where there 
are no cliffs, and blend in with the undulations of the land 
beyond. The rivers may be cut out with a knife, countries 
colored and borders marked, as desired. 

Some teachers may prefer to make salt relief maps. 
These are made with about one pound of cornstarch and 
two quarts of salt. Moisten the starch with a very little 
water and heat the salt. Then mix the two together and 
bake until thick enough to mold. Roll in a damp cloth 
and set aside to be used as needed. (The hands should be 
kept moist when working with the mixture.) Draw an 
outline map on heavy cardboard. Cover with the mixture 
and put on the elevations; when done the map may be 
baked until dry, or it will dry of itself if left undisturbed 
twenty-four hours. 

Another excellent kind of relief map is the sand map. 
To make this draw an outline on cardboard, and spread with 
a thin coat of mucilage. Sprinkle the mucilage with fine 
sand and work it in well. For mountains and highlands 
alternate mucilage and sand until the proper relation be- 
tween highland and valley is secured. Dry in the sun. If the 
mucilage spreads beyond the outline, trim back with a knife. 

Very pleasing relief maps can be easily cut from soft box- 
wood. The outline is first drawn on the board, and the 
rivers and lakes tooled out with a sharp knife or chisel. 



WITH THE GEOGRAPHY CLASS IO3 

When attractively colored and finished these maps add 
materially to the room decorations. 

Map drawing should have a prominent place in all 
geography teaching. Pupils ought at least to be able to 
draw quickly from memory, fair outline maps of each of the 
grand divisions, their own state, county, and township. 
They should be able to locate the principal mountains, 
cities and rivers. One of the most successful methods of 
presenting map work is by a series of outlines, tracing and 
sketching.^ 

Much interest may be aroused in industrial geography, 
and probably there is no better plan than the comparatively 
new "problem" method. The wise teacher is on the look- 
out continually for pictures, references, and little odds and 
ends of information of every sort to further her work in 
the schoolroom. Suppose the geography class is studying 
about the states of the cotton belt. The teacher turns to 
the filing box^ labeled "Industries." The envelope on 
"Cotton" contains enough material to fire the class with 
enthusiasm. Pictures may then be shown that illustrate 
the two ways of picking cotton (hand picking and ma- 
chinery.) Pictures of cotton fields and of a single plant in 
all its stages of growth come next. 

Problem: 

How is the soil prepared for planting? (Compare the 
plows in use in the cotton belt with the plows in the corn 
belt). What conclusion is drawn concerning the soil of 
the cotton belt? 

1 For further direction on this point see McFee, Outlines, Devices, and 
Recreations in U. S. Geography, 

2 See the chapter on "The School Library" for suggestion regarding the 
filing of clippings. 



I04 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

Study a relief map of the cotton belt states. Note the 
coastal plain, with its rich soil, the slopes farther back from 
the plain, where upland cotton is raised; the drainage, im- 
portance of the large rivers in each section. 

Study the climatic factors which influence the region, 
(i) The winds, their general direction. (2) Temperature 
and amount of rainfall (when needed and when detrimental 
to the crop) ; length of the growing season. 

Study the maps of the cotton producing states as 
shown in Bulletin 107 (Department of Commerce and 
Labor). 

Problems: 

1. Why is so little cotton grown in North Carolina? 

2. Why does the cotton boundary line include only the 
very southeastern part of Missouri? 

3. Why are the western counties of Texas cut out? 

4. Why is the northwestern strip of Oklahoma ex- 
cluded; why are New Mexico and Arkansas "patchy"? 

Examine samples of cotton; long staple and short staple, 
and sea-island, the best example of long staple cotton. Find 
where it grows. Talk about its rival, the Egyptian cotton. 
If possible, exhibit a few cotton bolls. The children clean 
out the seeds, and are then ready to appreciate the full 
value of the cotton gin,^ and to regard with interest, not 
only pictures of the first gin and its inventor, but types of 
later machines. The teacher then propounds the query: 

1 It would take an average worker two years to remove the seeds from 
sufficient cotton to make a bale. In the old days, it is said that a slave's 
evening was spent picking a shoe full of cotton seed. The average gin 
turns out from five to fourteen bales daily. A bale weighs 500 pounds. It 
takes about fourteen hundred pounds of raw cotton to make a bale, so tha: 
nearly two thirds of the weight is seed. 



WITH THE GEOGRAPHY CLASS 10$ 

"What use is made of cotton seeds? " This is search mate- 
rial for home reference. 

Next comes the manner of bahng cotton and the two 
shapes of bales. What is done with the cotton bales? 
Examine pictures that show transportation of cotton bales 
to the wharves and the railroad. Locate rivers in the cot- 
ton belt that carry cotton to the cotton mills. 

Problems: 

1. Discuss the cotton mills of New England. Why are 
there mills in this region so far from the cotton belt? 

2. Which is the cheaper method of transportation, by 
rail or by water? 

3. Why are we sending proportionately less cotton away 
from the United States each year? 

4. The cost of growing cotton. 

5. Menaces to the cotton industry. 

6. The people engaged in cotton growing. 

Close the study of cotton with a cotton program on 
Friday afternoon. The following is suggestive: 
Songs: 

"Nellie Gray." 
"Old Black Joe." 
"Dixie." 

"Little Old Log Cabin in de Lane." 
"Suwannee River." 
Compositions: 

"The Story of the Cotton Plant." 
"Down the River to Memphis with a Cotton Bale." 
"The By-products of Cotton." 
"Eli Whitney and the Cotton Gin." 
"Spinning in the Old Days." 



Io6 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

"A Visit to a Cotton Mill." 

*'A Spool of Thread." 

''Uncle Sam and the Cotton Industry." 

''In the Cotton Fields Before the War." 

"An Up-to-date Cotton Plantation." 

"Enemies of the Cotton Plant." 

Make a special effort to have the school patrons present. 
Display as many pictures and samples of cotton products 
as possible. In almost every neighborhood there are care- 
fully preserved products of great-grandmother's loom. 
Have a special table for the exhibition. Endeavor to find 
some elderly lady who will bring her spinning wheel and 
show how the mothers used to spend their evenings. 

In like manner, each section of our country yields mate- 
rial for scores of industry lessons. To the teacher once 
aroused, the problem will be not what to take up, but 
what to omit. Here are a few interesting and important 
topics : 

The Wheat Belt of Our Country. 
Where Corn is King. 
Our Forests. 

(a) The Forestry Service. 

(b) Gifts of the Forest. 

1. Maple Sugar. 

2. Turpentine, Gums, and Rosin. 

3. Lumber and Fuel. 

4. Camphor, etc. 
Fruits of the United States: 

(a) The Land of the Big Red Apple. 

(b) Where Pears Hang High. 

(c) The Fruit of the Vine. 

(d) Peach Areas of Our Country. 

(e) Where the Orange Grows. 



WITH THE GEOGRAPHY CLASS I07 

A Visit to a Woolen Mill. 
The Story of Silk. 
The Story of Flax. 
Where Coal is Mined. 
Cattle and Dairy Products : 

(a) On a Western Cattle Ranch. 

(b) A Modern Dairy Farm. 

(c) How Condensed Milk is Made. 

(d) Making Fancy Cheeses. 

(e) A Visit to a Packing House. 

(f) Where Leather is Made. 

(g) Making Boots and Shoes. 
Where We Get Salt. 

The Iron-Ore Districts of Our Country. 

A Lead Mine. 

In an Oil Field. 

Uncle Sam's Money Factories. 

Where Gold is Mined. 

In the Sugar Bush. 

Garden Spots of Our Land. 

Borax Hunters. 

Pearl Divers. 

In a Paper Plant. 

Uncle Sam's Fisheries: 

(a) Oyster Beds of the Chesapeake. 

(b) Where the Big Red Salmon Grows. 

(c) Cod and Mackerel. 

(d) Fresh-water Fishing Here and There. 

A wise use of the stereopticon lantern is of great value 
to the geography class. (The teacher must take care not 
to do all the reciting.) In some states the Department of 
Public Instruction furnishes slides for this work. New 
York, for example, has taken special care in the 
preparation of slides showing the great industries, such as 
the manufacture of salt and steel, and the mining and 



lo8 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

preparation of coal for the market. Small radiopticons 
which will throw the pictures on a screen from an ordinary- 
photograph or postcard should be a part of every school 
equipment. The use of stereoscopes and views adds con- 
siderable interest. The children will vie with one another 
in bringing timely illustrations from the home collection. 
It is a good plan to assign a state, or a group of states, or 
country, to each geography pupil, and see which one can 
make the best collection of descriptive cards and pictures. 
A reward may be offered for skill in the mounting of cards 
and pictures on a specified size of heavy paper or cloth. 

In conclusion: Geography teaching that does not make 
the pupils eager to find out all they can about this inter- 
esting old world of ours is a failure. Mere book study will 
not do this. The text is only the guide, and it is all the 
more welcome to be frequently lost from view. Remember 
to make the work practical. There is no end to what may 
be accomplished, if only the pupils are properly imbued 
with the spirit of interest and investigation. The travel 
instinct is born in nearly everyone; and we all like to jour- 
ney about — if only in the imagination. 

Suggestive Supplementary Books in Geography 

For Primary Grades: 

Andrews, Jane. Seven Little Sisters. 

Carpenter, Frank G. Around the World with the Children. 

Curtis, Alice T. Story of Cotton. 

Button, S. T. Fishing and Hunting. 

Fairbanks, Harold W. Home Geography for Primary Grades, 

Hope, Ascott R. The World (Peeps at Many Lands Series). 

Luther, Agnes V. Trading and Exploring. 



WITH THE GEOGRAPHY CLASS I09 

Schwartz, Julia A. Five Li/ He Strangers. 

Shaw, E. R. Big People and Little People of Other Lands. 

Wiley, Belle, and Edick, Grace. Children of the Cliff. 

For Intermediate and Advanced Grades: 

Carpenter, Frank G. Geographical Readers: North America; 

South America; Europe; Asia; Africa; Australia (six 

volumes) . 
Carpenter, Frank G. How the World is Fed; How the World 

is Clothed; How the World is Housed (three volumes). 
Chamberlain and Chamberlain. Geographical Readers. 
Frye, A. Brooks and Brook Basins. 

Hope, Ascott R. The World (Peeps at Many Lands Series), 
Krout, M. H. Alice's Visit to the Hawaiian Islands. 
McFee, Inez N. Boys and Girls of Many Lands. 
Rocheleau, W. F. Products of the Soil, and Great American 

Industries. 
Starr, Frederick. Strange Peoples. 
National Geographic Magazine. 



CHAPTER XIII 
PHYSICAL TRAINING AND HYGIENE 

As the natural intellectual leader of a community, the 
rural teacher can do as much for public health in the coun- 
try as the medical inspector and school nurses are doing 
in the city. In other words, the country school teacher 
should be a public health educator. 

This seems a rather formidable undertaking. The 
average teacher has had little training throughout her school 
course for the teaching of physiology and hygiene. Sane 
presentations of the subject are both delicate and difficult. 
But after all it is not mere teaching of physiology that is 
needed. The nurses and medical inspectors in the cities 
do not do this: they merely point the way to clean living. 
Physiology enlightens the children regarding the func- 
tions of that most wonderful machine of all, the human 
body, but it does not protect them in any way against 
tuberculosis from contaminated milk or typhoid from im- 
pure water. 

Far from being too difficult to teach in the common 
schools, the subject of public health can be made both 
interesting and understandable. "Personal cleanliness, 
purity of food and drinks, the nature of disease, and the 
method of transference are all things which can be ex- 
pressed in the simplest terms and made clear to the under- 
standing of children. Milk, its value as a food, the fact 
that it is highly appreciated by bacteria, and that it is 



PHYSICAL TRAINING AND HYGIENE III 

therefore necessary to protect it against them — these are 
not too difficult for the children." ' 

More and more we are coming to realize the truth of the 
old adage : " An ounce of prevention is better than a pound 
of cure." Mothers no longer voluntarily expose their 
children to mumps, measles, chicken pox, scarlet fever, 
and whooping cough, thinking it is better for them to have 
these diseases while they are young. At the same time 
many mothers through ignorance of preventive measures 
in the way of sanitation and the scientific preparation and 
care of food, still unintentionally expose their children to 
contagious and infectious diseases. 

Remarkable results may be expected to follow adequate 
public health work by teachers everywhere, both in the 
cities and in rural districts. ' ' In rural communities annually 
400,000 persons die and about 2,000,000 others are seri- 
ously ill. from infective diseases. If only one half of these 
deaths and cases of sickness can be eliminated, it means 
that an immense field of useful work lies at the hand of the 
country school teacher who will become a public health 
educator, and will instruct the children and the mothers 
and fathers how to prevent the transference of poisonous 
bacteria from those who carry them to those who do 
not."i 

A small medicine cabinet should be a part of every teach- 
er's equipment. Many teachers provide themselves with a 
bottle of peroxide, a roll of absorbent cotton, needle 
and thread, bandages, court-plaster, and adhesive tape. 
To these should be added three-ounce bottles of Hsterine, 

1 From a bulletin treating of sanitation in rural communities, published 
by the U. S. Bureau of Education. 



112 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

castor oil, formaldehyde, turpentine, sweet oil, aromatic 
spirits of ammonia, sweet spirits of niter, and dry sulphur. 
A quart of limewater, a clay pipe, a roll of flannel, a small 
teakettle, and an alcohol lamp, are also valuable. 

1. Listerine is excellent for gargle in cases of sore 
throat, and as a mouth wash. 

2. Castor oil, in periodic doses, will permanently cure 
sour stomach and headache when hygienic habits are 
followed. 

3. Formaldehyde is a simple sanitary remedy for sore 
throat and tonsillitis. Fifteen drops in a half tumbler of 
water and used as a gargle every half hour will speedily 
effect relief. Breathing the fumes of formaldehyde through 
the mouth will stop paroxysms of coughing. Even whoop- 
ing cough can be held in check if taken in time. 

4. Turpentine is well known as a preventive of tetanus 
or lockjaw. For tight cold on the chest, nothing excels a 
thorough greasing with sweet oil to prevent blistering, and 
then a generous application of turpentine, covering with 
a piece of flannel. 

5. Sweet oil, besides in the use just mentioned, is a 
valuable adjunct in healing sore spots and bruises. 

6. Aromatic spirits of ammonia is useful as a stimulant. 
It is also valuable in cases of acid dyspepsia, nervous or 
sick headache, and simple nervousness. Ten drops in a 
quarter of a tumbler of water is the dose for a child; for an 
adult a quarter of a teaspoonf ul in about a third of a tumbler 
of water. This may be given every fifteen minutes until 
three or four doses have been taken. 

7. Sweet spirits of niter is useful in allaying fever. It 
promotes healthy activity of skin and kidneys and will often 



PHYSICAL TRAINING AND HYGIENE II3 

loosen a tight cough. A teaspoonful should be put into 
a tumbler of water. The dose for a child is a teaspoonful 
of the mixture every half hour; the dose for an adult, one 
tablespoonful. 

8. Dry sulphur, inhaled through a clay pipe, is excellent 
for ulcerated sore throat. 

9. Limewater is excellent to settle a sick stomach. To 
prepare it, put a piece of lime the size of a hen's egg into a 
quart of water, and let it stand for a few hours. Pour off 
the clear hquid and bottle it for use. The dose is a tea- 
spoonful in a small glass of water. 

Many states now provide medical inspectors for country 
schools. These officers look after the physical defects of 
the children, unsanitary conditions of the school premises, 
and such menaces as unadjustable desks, dry sweeping, 
feather dusters, shiny blackboards, and the like. But 
they have no jurisdiction over harassing school discipline 
that wrecks the nerves, excessive home study and waste of 
time upon subjects of no value; nor can they do much 
toward instituting habits of right living. These fall 
entirely within the scope of the teacher. It is her business 
to inculcate habits of health that will tend to promote in- 
dustrial efhciency in the after life of the child. 

First, it will be necessary to awaken the mind to a keen 
appreciation of the need of a good body. This can be 
done by telling the children stories in which the care, 
cleanliness, and health of the body bear an important part. 
Aim to teach pupils so to care for their bodies, and to have 
such pride in their preservation, as to keep these beautiful 
in form, and the owners free from degrading habits. Several 
informal talks and stories should be given to the pupils 



114 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

before making any attempt to introduce the subject 
proper. 

Lead the pupils to an appreciation of the term industrial 
efficiency. Show that inefficiency results from chronic 
habits of unhealthy living. The user of alcohol will furnish 
the most apt illustration. Aside from the penalties suffered 
by himself and his family, he is a menace to society; he 
is unpunctual, wastes material, disobeys instructions, 
endangers others' lives, decreases the product of his trade 
and of his employer, lessens the profits of both, depresses 
wages, and increases insurance and business risks. Be- 
cause no one can for see when the "drop too much" will 
be taken, users of alcohol are not wanted in positions of 
trust. 

It has been conceded that milder forms of unhealthy 
living interfere with industrial efficiency even more than 
alcoholism. Often men and women who have received 
thorough technical training fail to win promotion because 
of carelessness in personal habits. Their clothing is 
disorderly and often unclean, their breath offensive, and 
they have a decidedly unkempt appearance. They plainly 
show themselves to be the victims of constipation, headache, 
bad ventilation in the home, irregular meals and sleep, and 
improper diet. Too many night parties and nicotinism 
also leave their stamp. Always one pays by reduced effi- 
ciency for intemperance in eating, sleeping, or playing. In 
paying his employees for piece work, instead of by the hour, 
day, or week, the employer partially protects himself 
against uneven, sluggish, slip-shod workmen; but, other 
things being equal, his promotions are awarded to those who 
keep themselves up to the standard of excellence, for he 



PHYSICAL TRAINING AND HYGIENE IlS 

knows that the man who does even, steady work has the 
best earning capacity and deserves the best recognition. 

Now comes the query, what general health habits should 
be observed by all? The following adaptation of daily, 
routine may be practiced: 

1. Throw the bedding over the foot of the bed. 

2. If the weather demands, close the window that has 
been open during the night, until you are ready to leave 
the room. 

3. Bathe the face, neck, chest, crotch, and armpits. 
Finish with cold water. Give particular attention to the 
eyes, ears, and nose. If time and conveniences permit, 
bathe the entire body. 

4. Cleanse the finger nails. 

5. Cleanse the teeth, especially the places that are out 
of sight and hard to reach. 

6. Breakfast punctually at a regular hour. Eat 
lightly and only what agrees with you. 

7. Visit the toilet at a regular time. 

8. Have several minutes in the open air, preferably 
walking. 

9. Be punctual at work, and insist on a supply of fresh 

air in the workroom. 

10. Eat punctually at the noon hour, and enjoy the 

meal. 

11. Be regular, temperate, and leisurely in eating the 
evenmg meal; eat nothing that disagrees with you. 

12. Spend the evening profitably and pleasantly and in 
ways compatible with the foregoing habits. 

13. Retire at a fixed hour, making up for irregularity 
by an earlier hour next night. 



Il6 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COAIMUNITY 

14. Repeat 3 and 5. 

15. Turn underclothes wrong side out for ventilation. 

16. Open windows. 

17. Relax mind and body and go to sleep. 

These rules are, of course, for the adult. The teacher 
may well accept them as her own safeguard, and she will 
be able readily to adapt them for the use of the pupils. A 
few simple health rules may well be written upon the black- 
board, or pinned up where all can read. The following are 
suggestive : 

1. Health is wealth. 

2. Breathe plenty of fresh air. 

3. Do not put anything into your mouth except food 
and drink. 

4. Keep your face, hands, and finger nails clean. 

5. Keep the teeth clean, and the breath pure and 
sweet. 

6. Avoid draughts. 

7. Do not sit with wet feet or damp clothing. 

8. Breathe, sit, stand and walk correctly. In so doing 
you will do more to prevent consumption than many 
physicians combined. 

9. Go to bed early, rise early, exercise regularly. 

10. Bathe frequently. 

11. Do not overeat. Keep the bowel action regular. 

12. Learn to use rightly and take proper care of every 
part of the body. 

"A perfect body makes a chariot in which a heroic soul 
may well be proud to ride.^ " The children realize this 
and are quick to see that if they learn the laws which govern 

* Henry Ward Beecher. 



PHYSICAL TRAINING AND HYGIENE II7 

the development of the body and its maintenance in a con- 
dition of health, and follow them, they will grow up strong 
and well. On the other hand, if through neglect or igno- 
rance, they violate these laws, they will not have the strength 
which they might have had, and they will be more likely 
to contract disease. Each one should learn the substances 
which his body needs for its nutrition and work, and how it 
uses them; why he eats and drinks, why he exercises, why 
he needs pure air. The earlier this knowledge is acquired, 
the better, for it is in youth that the tissues are developing 
and taking their form, and any neglect of health laws may 
result in a permanent deformity of the body. Thus, a 
boy who interferes with the development of his tissues by 
the use of tobacco must carry these undeveloped parts all 
his life, as they cannot grow after the period of growth 
and formation is past. The child who, through poor food, 
becomes rickety (rachitic) and gets deformed bones, carries 
these bones to the grave. The girl who walks with bent 
shoulders while bones are forming will be round-shouldered 
for life, as the shape of the frame is fixed in youth. 

"When once the child is taught the importance and lan- 
guage of movement, and the reflex action upon his charac- 
ter, he will no more shuffle his feet or slam the door than he 
will permit slang or profanity to pass his lips. First awaken 
in the man an appreciation of the necessity for a good body; 
then, practice, for the purpose of developing the physical 
being, becomes a pleasure. Boys can be won to earnest work 
by suggestions as to the importance of strength and manliness. 
They can easily be led to see the commercial value put 
upon a good form and courteous bearing by the business 
world. Tell them of the boy whose healthful, gentlemanly 



Il8 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

appearance won him a position over a crowd of careless, 
slouching competitors. Girls are pleased with the attain- 
ments of grace and beauty, while all acknowledge the 
universal demand for health and good manners." ^ 

An engineer or a mechanic may repair and improve his 
machine. We may, in Hke manner, improve our body- 
machines. By following certain rules in physical culture 
and training we may develop strength, poise, grace, en- 
durance, what we will. Imbue the pupils with this idea; 
then take them into training. Nothing will arouse slug- 
gish, inattentive, mischievously inclined pupils so quickly 
and effectively as a few minutes' drill in calisthenics, with 
the doors and windows opened wide. 

First, develop the requisites for a graceful, well-poised 
body; learn to sit, stand, and walk correctly. The Greeks 
claimed that character is revealed by gait. We have often 
proved this true. Have we not determined a person's 
mood by the way he walks? And have we not in a great 
measure determined the character of a stranger by his 
bearing? Good walking is simply one perfect poise of the 
body following another in continued succession. It is one 
of the best of exercises. Emerson, who was an admirable 
walker, — light, erect, and strong of limb, once said that the 
strength of the sole-leather had gone into the fiber of the 
body, when the shoes were worn out. 

The correct standing position is: head up, chin in, chest 
expanded, shoulders back and down, abdomen in, hips 
thrown back. If the body is in the right posture, it 
should be possible to see the toes by simply dropping the 
head without changing the position of the shoulders. 

* Anna Morris. Physical Education. 



PHYSICAL TRAINING AND HYGIENE II9 

Pupils should practice standing correctly until the muscular 
sense has become so accustomed to it that the body will 
feel uncomfortable in a stooping or crooked position. It is 
good practice to walk about with some light object, such 
as a bean bag, on the head. This is an excellent device 
for obtaining the correct position in stair climbing. Never 
run upstairs. 

Try the following devices for poise and self-possession: 

1. Position, letting the weight rest principally upon the 
balls of the feet. Rise as high as possible on the toes, then 
sink back to position. Repeat several times. 

2. Advance the right foot its length, then rise high on 
the toes, settle the weight on the advanced foot, keeping 
up back heel; rise again on toes and change the weight to 
back foot, keeping up front heel, and so continue to al- 
ternate. 

3. Advance the left foot and repeat 2. 

4. Feet side by side, and squarely on the floor. Sway 
the body, changing the weight alternately to balls and 
heels. Don't raise the feet. 

5. Without raising the feet, change the weight to the 
right foot, then to the left, and so alternate. 

6. Incline the head obliquely forward to the right, and 
body obliquely to the left. Reverse, keeping feet on the 
floor. 

7. Weight on both feet, rotate the body at waist line to 
the right, and head to the left. Reverse. Do not raise 
feet. 

(Slow march music may be used if desired.) 
The following exercises are restful when the pupils have 
been steadily employed at their desks: 



I20 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

1. Place a wand across the back, letting it run out 
through the bent elbows, rest the hands on the chest so as 
to press the arms and shoulders back, and march about. 

2. Extend the left arm from the shoulder upward and 
grasp a dumb-bell. Lower the arm on the other side, and 
with this hand support a heavy weight. 

3. Raise the arms high above the head, place the tips of 
the fingers together, and describe a half-circle toward the 
floor without bending the knees. 

4. Take a weight in the hands and perform the hewing 
exercise, similar to the motions employed by the wood- 
chopper. Practice with the real article is highly desirable. 

Dwell at some length upon the value of exercise and 
deep breathing. Following is a partial list of benefits to be 
derived from exercise and deep breathing: 

1. The circulation is stimulated and the blood is en- 
riched. 

2. Headache is relieved. 

3. The chest is enlarged, the form and size of the abdo- 
men are improved. 

4. Constipation and biliousness are cured. 

5. Weak lungs are strengthened. 

After practicing some simple breathing exercises, try 
the following exercise adapted to the tune of "Hail 
Columbia." 

Position: Stand erect, hands at sides, fingers closed. 

1. Inhale deeply through the nostrils during the first two 
measures. 

2. Strike lightly upon left side of chest with right hand. 

3. Strike lightly upon right side of chest with left hand. 

4. 5, 6. Repeat 2 and 3 and 2. 



PHYSICAL TRAINING AND HYGIENE 121 

Nos. 2-6 should be performed in two measures, while 
holding breath. 

7. Exhale through the mouth during the fifth and sixth 
measures. 

Repeat 1-7 until the tune is finished.^ 

What is the best exercise? That exercise which a person 
most enjoys is undoubtedly the best for him. But one 
should choose various forms so that the muscles throughout 
the body may be developed. Walking and running de- 
velop the muscles of the legs; rowing, the arms, back and 
legs; horseback riding, the legs and trunk. All vigorous 
exercise develops the muscles of respiration and the heart, 
and stimulates the digestive organs. Such games as 
basket ball, baseball, and tennis are excellent exercises. 
When out-of-door exercise is not possible, special exercises 
may be practiced to develop the muscles. Chest-weight 
pulling, dumb-bell and club swinging, in a well-ventilated 
hall or room, are splendid. 

Girls may find good exercise in helping with the house- 
work. But this, as well as special exercises, must be 
conscious. "Walking forms a large part of household 
exercise, and it is most necessary to do this correctly in 
order to reap its benefits. Always remember to hold the 
chin in and let the chest lead. Draw in the abdomen, and 
the shoulders will naturally fall into the proper place. 
Then, with deep breathing through your nose you will not 
run much risk of injury from housework. Remember to 
bend only at the hips; do not bend at the waist; this will give 
you a good poise, and keep your back straight. You can 
develop your figure just as well by means of housework, if 

^ James H. Smart. Manual of School Gymnaslics. 



122 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

you do it properly, as by a special system of physical cul- 
ture. The movements used in scrubbing, sweeping, 
washing windows, bread-kneading, and bed-making, develop 
the muscles of the arm and chest and improve all this 
part of the body. Do not forget when ironing to apply 
the principle of double-sided development, which is an 
important point in all housework." ^ 

The object of all muscular exercise is not to develop 
modern Samsons, but to attain perfection in intellectual 
and spiritual things. A man can use his mind more 
efficiently if he has good circulation and perfect digestion, 
and these things will be granted unto him if he but exercise 
sufficiently. Heaviness and inaptitude for work are com- 
mon to people who do not take exercise enough to keep 
their circulation from becoming sluggish. 

All the exercises necessary for the proper development of 
the body may be obtained from the use of a few simple 
contrivances, such as the Indian club, the wand, the ring, 
and the light wooden dumb-bell. There is, therefore, 
really no reason why physical training should not be a 
part of every school curriculum. In ancient Greece, 
physical exercises in the schools were prescribed and regu- 
lated by law. Some time we shall have advanced that far. 

By application to the Commissioner of Education at 
Washington, D. C, many helpful booklets on school hygiene 
may be had. 

Other valuable references are: Gulick, L. H., Physical 
Education by Muscular Exercise; Hancock's Physical Train- 
ing for Children by Japanese Methods. 

^ Emma E. Walker. Beauty through Hygiene, 



CHAPTER XIV 
LITERATURE AND COMPOSITION 

The importance of literature and composition in com- 
mon schools cannot be overestimated, and yet college 
entrance examinations prove that attention to this matter 
is greatly needed. How many of our graduates are unable 
to write good English or to appreciate good literature! 

"We teach a little aritlimetic, a little geography, a little 
history, some spelling, reading, writing, a little of some 
of the sciences, and if we stop here we have done little 
indeed — ignoring the greatest and best of all that we 
might and should have taught. The teacher who fails to 
give a large share of time and attention to the careful mem- 
orizing, ■ the study, and the enjoyment of fine things in 
literature is woefully at fault. The boy or girl who has 
been at school for six or eight years should go out into life 
with a wealth of good things in literature securely lodged in 
the memory, that shall mold his taste, give color to his 
thought, and influence his daily life." ^ 

To acquaint the pupils with the best thought of man in its 
best form, to encourage the youths to make such thoughts 
their own, and come to love them and so to live them, 
ought to be the high purpose of all school teaching. "It 
is for you to so train the pupils that they can go to Tenny- 
son and Shakespeare, Dante and Goethe, and get more 
pleasure out of it than from Lazare and its family. You 

1 J. P. McCaskey. 

123 



124 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

may have to introduce these things by way of a stepping- 
stone; but let your aim always be to get something worth 
while. Thus we may show them the literary power of 
their own experience, and teach them to express it with 
joy; we may open to them the inspiring literature of all 
time, so they will read with delighted appreciation; and 
all this helps to equip them for life, to bear its burdens and 
meet its sorrows and troubles." ^ 

For a very long time it was thought almost universally 
that formal grammar was the true basis of all teaching of 
English. But now the wisest teachers agree that children 
cannot be trained to speak or write correctly by parsing 
according to Latinized formulas. They will never learn 
to construct a good sentence by analyzing complex or com- 
pound sentences, or by memorizing and repeating the rules 
of syntax, though this method be followed until they grow 
gray. Many great authors never studied the art of com- 
position; but they read a multitude of the best books, and 
had the faculty of learning how to compose by studying 
the compositions of others, while at the same time they 
cultivated literary tastes and added to their stock of general 
information. 

It is possible to teach children to express with joy and 
delight what is seen and felt. Too often written work is a 
task, when it should be a pleasure. The reason why the 
bare mention of a composition is sometimes enough to 
produce signs of rebellion in an ordinarily obedient school, 
is because the pupils do not know how to go about writing it. 
It is as though they were ordered to build a steam threshing 
machine, or to prove that the moon is inhabited. They 
1 Blaisdell. 



LITERATURE AND COMPOSITION 1 25 

have not the ability to express what few ideas they may 
have upon the subject given. There is a feeling of help- 
lessness that comes from lack of practice or lack of 
interest, and their best work appears to them crude and 
incomplete. 

Composition work should be gradual and systematic. 
There are various exercises which may precede and in- 
troduce the work of purely original composition, and which 
are so interesting that the pupils will regard them as 
recreations. Among these are exercises in making ab- 
stracts, outlines, amplifications, and paraphrases, the more 
simple of which should engage the attention of the younger 
pupils especially. Some illustrations of these forms are 
given here, as suggestions to the teacher: 

The Abstract. An abstract is a condensed form of the 
work of another. It should contain in substance all the 
principal thoughts and events of the original, but should be 
expressed in shorter form, omitting many details. At 
first it is best to read a short, pointed story to the pupils, 
and have them prepare their abstract from memory. 
The familiar and true story which Cowper tells of John 
Gilpin affords an excellent exercise in making abstracts. 
While told at considerable length, it may be condensed into 
the following brief narration: 

"John Gilpin was a well-known merchant of London, and 
a captain of the militia. When he had been married twenty 
years, he agreed that all his family should celebrate his 
wedding day by going to Edmonton, a few miles away, and 
taking dinner with him at a hotel called "The Bell." His 
wife, with the three children, her sister, and her niece, went 
in a carriage. Mr. Gilpin was to ride behind, upon a horse 
which he had borrowed from his friend, a calender (or finisher 



126 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

of cloth) by trade, who Uved ten miles from Edmonton. He 
was delayed in starting by waiting on a customer at his 
store. He set out at length wearing his long cloak, and a 
leather belt, to which he fastened two jugs of wine which 
his wife had forgotten to take. He was not used to horse- 
back riding, and could not manage the horse. Fearing he 
should fall, when it began to gallop he seized hold of its mane. 
This caused it to run all the faster. Mr. Gilpin's hat and 
wig blew oS, and then his cloak also, for the loop which tied 
it broke. The jugs were thrown violently upward in the 
gallop, and broke, the wine falling upon the horse and causing 
it to run still harder. The gatemen along the road opened 
the gates for Mr. Gilpin to pass, thinking he was running a 
race. From the hotel porch Mrs. Gilpin saw him going by 
with great speed, and called to him, but he could not stop. 
The furious ride continued until the house of the calender 
was reached. That gentleman brought out his own hat and 
wig for Mr. Gilpin, and encouraged him to ride back to 
Edmonton. Just then a donkey brayed, and the frightened 
horse started back to London with its rider. The calender's 
hat and wig blew off at once, for they were too large. Mrs. 
Gilpin, in alarm, had sent a boy on a horse after her husband. 
The boy met him coming back, and, turning around, tried to 
overtake him. This chase led people to think Mr. Gilpin 
was a robber, and several horsemen began to pursue him with 
loud cries. The gatemen all thought as before, that Mr. Gil- 
pin was riding a race, and threw the gates open before him. 
The chase never ceased until the poor man was carried by 
the runaway horse to the store in London from which he first 
started. Mr. Gilpin's unhappy wedding day was the subject 
of much sport to his acquaintances." ^ 

In preparing an abstract of long selections, care must be 
taken to emphasize the parts of the story in the order of 
their importance. The pupils should tell the story briefly 
^ From C, W. Mann's, School Recreations and Amusements. 



LITERATURE AND COMPOSITION 1 27 

and dearly in their own words. Among the poems suit- 
able for this purpose are: "The Blind Men and the Ele- 
phant," by Saxe; "The Lord of Burleigh," and "The Lady 
of Shalott," by Tennyson; "Cobbler Keezar's Vision," and 
"King Solomon and the Ants," by Whittier; "The Village 
Blacksmith," "The Slave's Dream," and "Paul Revere's 
Ride," by Longfellow; "Lady Yeardley's Guest," by 
Preston. 

The Outline. An outline differs from an abstract in that 
it includes merely the headings of the different parts of the 
story or poem. Usually a selection will naturally divide 
itself into three parts — the introduction, the story, and the 
conclusion. If the selection is long, these principal di- 
visions may be divided into subheads. Only short stories 
or poems should be given to beginners. As an example, 
here is an outline of "The Schoolmaster's Guests," by 
Will Carleton: 

I. The Introduction: 

1. The master. 

2. The pupils. 

3. The room. 

II. The Story: 

1. Arrival of district fathers. 

2. Object of their visit. 

3. Complaints made by the spokesman. 

III. The Conclusion: 

1. Jim's trick. 

2. Abrupt ending of the complaints. 

3. Mirth of the school. 

4. Departure of the irate squires. 



128 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

Amplification. Amplification is the expansion of the 
author's thought, and is of great value as it leads directly 
to original composition. Care and thought are required for 
its preparation, because it implies the addition of facts or 
incidents that are not really in the story, and these must be 
in harmony with the rest of the selection. The pupil should 
master the story, noting the order and relation of all the 
principal points. He may then supply all the incidents 
that would have been likely to occur, and form the whole 
into a connected story, avoiding as far as possible the use 
of the author's words. At first, simple sentences should 
be used; later on, paragraphs; and finally, poems or other 
connected narrations. Short poems often afford the best 
exercises for amplification, and many may be taken from 
the works of Longfellow, Whittier, and Saxe. The follow- 
ing passages from Whittier's "Snow Bound" will illustrate. 

The old familiar sights of ours 

Took marvelous shapes; strange domes and towers 

Rose up where sty and corncrib stood, 

Or garden wall, or belt of wood; 

A smooth white mound the brush pile showed, 

A fenceless drift what once was road; 

The bridle post an old man sat 

With loose-flung coat and high cocked hat; 

The well curb had a Chinese roof; 

And even the long sweep, high aloof, 

In its slant splendor seemed to tell 

Of Pisa's leaning miracle. 

Shut in from all the world without, 
We sat the clean-winged hearth about, 
Content to let the north wind roar 
In baffled rage at pane and door, 



LITERATURE AND COMPOSITION 1 29 

While the red logs before us beat 

The frost line back with tropic heat; 

And ever, when a louder blast 

Shook beam and rafter as it passed, 

The merrier up its roaring draught 

The great throat of the chimney laughed. 

The house dog on his paws outspread 
Laid to the fire his drowsy head, 
The cat's dark silhouette on the wall 
A couchant tiger's seemed to fall; 
And, for the winter fireside meet, 
Between the andirons' straggling feet 
The mug of cider simmered slow. 
The apples sputtered in a row, 
And, close at hand, the basket stood 
With nuts from brown October's wood. 

The sky had been gray and heavy for several days, and 
when the wind veered to the east, Uncle Moses, who was 
skilled in reading signs, foretold a heavy snowstorm. Before 
our early bedtime came, his prophecy proved true. The 
wind blew a perfect gale, drifting and piling up the snow- 
flakes as they fell. The window frames were soon heaped 
with snow, and through the glass the posts of the clothesline 
looked like tall and sheeted ghosts. 

All that night and the next day the storm raged, and, 
when the second morning dawned bright and clear, we looked 
out upon a universe of sky and snow. Instead of our old 
familiar sights, we saw strange domes and towers where the 
woodpile, garden wall, pigpen, and corncrib stood. The 
trees and barn roofs were weighted with snow, and the old 
brush pile looked like a huge mound. The road was drifted 
so full that there was not a fence post in sight on either 
side. Our old bridle post, near the garden gate, resembled 
an old man in a high cocked hat, with his cloak gathered 



130 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

loosely around him. The well curb had a Chinese roof, and its 
long slanting sweep reminded us of the leaning tower of Pisa. 

It was bitter cold, and we spent the day caring for the 
suffering animals, shoveling snow from the burdened roofs, 
and making paths. We worked with a will, but were well 
content when the twilight of the short December day left 
us free to gather about the clean-winged hearth. We were 
shut in from all the world, and the north wind roared in 
baffled rage at the doors and window frames. But it mattered 
little to us how the night behaved, for the red logs glowed 
cheerfully before us, and, when a louder blast shook the 
beams and rafters, the great throat of the roaring chimney 
laughed more merrily than ever. 

We presented a picture of cozy, quiet cheerfulness before 
the fire that night. Our schoolmaster was with us, and had 
signified his willingness to read aloud from Burns. This 
was sufficient to drive us boys delightedly into the chimney 
corner, where we curled up on the floor close beside our 
Uncle's bench. Father, thoroughly tired after his day of 
care, nodded drowsily in his armchair near mother's swiftly 
turning spinning wheel. Our grave elder sister, Mary, worked 
busily at her patchwork. Old Bose lay close beside her 
with his drowsy head on his paws, starting fitfully, every 
now and then, as he dreamed of some lost sheep buried in the 
snow; while the house cat rubbed gently against Aunt, 
mutely beseeching her to lay aside her shining knitting 
needles. On the braided rug before the fire, sister Elizabeth, 
the youngest and dearest, carefully watched the row of 
roasting, sputtering apples. A mug of cider simmered 
slowly between the andirons' straggling feet, and near by on a 
stand, convenient to us all, stood a large basket of nuts. 
SmaU wonder that all the snow and wind could not quench 
the cheerfulness round our hearth fire's ruddy glow! 

Paraphrasing. A paraphrase is a translation of the 
thoughts of another into language of our own. It assists the 



LITERATURE AND COMPOSITION I3I 

pupil to get the author's meaning and emphasizes the 
choice of right words and the value of clearness and proper 
arrangement. Select a sentence of Disraeli, Besant, or 
John Henry Newman, and have the pupils paraphrase it 
as a means of calling attention to the strength of the sen- 
tence itself. Poems may be paraphrased to illustrate the 
difference between the language of poetry and that of prose. 

Letter Writing. At the present time, letter writing may 
almost be classed among the lost arts. In the days of our 
grandmothers, school girls did not sit down with a large 
book on their knees for a desk, and dash off stray thoughts 
with a stub pencil on any kind of paper. We would not 
wish to revive the elegant letter writing of former days or 
the formality of the old-time correspondence between mem- 
bers of the same family, but we would advocate teaching 
the pupils to write neat, entertaining letters, expressed in 
good Enghsh. The letters of Cowper, Thackeray, Frank- 
lin, Lowell, and Motley, may profitably be read by teachers 
and pupils. For a study of style, the student of literature 
will find Andrew Lang's Letters to Dead Authors especially 
valuable. In a number of these letters every idiosyncrasy 
and personal trait of the dead author's style is cleverly 
imitated. 

Composition Proper. Among the earliest forms which 
the pupil may profitably take up are biographical, his- 
torical, and geographical sketches. Here books of refer- 
ence are necessary, and the teacher should guard against 
the pupils' copying. Many pupils give no thought to the 
fact that they are deceiving or injuring no one but them 
selves, and make fairly readable compositions by skim- 
ming and uniting the thoughts of others. Descriptive 



132 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

composition comes next in line, and teachers will experience 
no difficulty if pupils are asked to write about familiar 
things. To be successful in description the pupil must be 
able to observe closely. With advanced pupils, a study of 
objects that are similar or are intimately related, with a 
view to finding out their differences, will be found valuable 
in preliminary work. They may also study and analyze 
passages chosen from Ruskin, Dickens, Macaulay, Scott, 
and from other masters of descriptive prose. Romance 
writing should not be attempted by beginners in literature. 
Teach the pupils that the test of romance writing is not 
that it be true, but that it be possible and consistent. 
This principle should be the guiding one in the formation 
of the plot. After the plot is constructed, the setting may 
be determined — for upon this its successful development 
will depend. When all these questions are settled, the 
action of the story may begin. Endeavor to make the 
first sentence so interesting that it wUl attract attention, 
and show the traits of the characters by their action and 
by their conversation, rather than by narrative. Be sure 
to stop when the story is told. For beginners the subject 
should be simple and well-known. The plot should not 
contain too many incidents, or any feature that is clearly 
impossible. 

The subjects mentioned in this chapter have been sug- 
gested as examples rather than with the idea of presenting 
anything like an exhaustive treatment of literature and 
composition. But little has been said of the prime pur- 
pose of all English work — the cultivation of a taste for 
literature. However, a pupil will rarely be found who, 
while able to express himself clearly and intelligently, is 



LITERATURE AND COMPOSITION I33 

yet unable to appreciate whatever is best in literature. 
Some teachers will exclaim that they have little or no time 
for such work. They should make time. If they were to 
give a morning each week to literature and composition, 
and to this alone, permitting nothing to interfere, they would 
soon find it the very best of school work. 



CHAPTER XV 
THE SCHOOL LIBRARY 

"No one thing," says Horace Mann, "will contribute 
more to intelligent reading than a well-selected school 
library." It is a necessity in every school. By daily 
companionship we learn the right uses of books; we soon 
come to regard them as dearly loved friends for whom we 
would sacrifice a great deal. Think of the great men who 
have gone without the necessities of life that they might 
buy books! "Nothing is so unhomelike as a bookless 
home, unless it is a house whose books betray a vulgar 
and narrow conception of life. A man's books form an 
average portrait of himself. Without books, a merchant's 
palace becomes but a prison; the trail of the upholsterer 
is over it all; while a small library well-selected may, 
like Aladdin's lamp, turn the abode of poverty into a 
princely home." 

Through reading, the child's horizon is widened at a very 
early age. He is brought into contact with the great world 
in which he has to live. As an educational agency, reading 
is of the very greatest importance. The leading idea is to 
fill the child's mind with a love for good, true literature, 
and so train his mind that he can discriminate between the 
good and the bad, that he will naturally reject all that is 
worthless. There is nothing a teacher can do for his pupils 
to more advantage than to teach them the proper use of 
good books. 

134 



THE SCHOOL LIBRARY I35 

In selecting school libraries, great care should be used 
in the choice of books. There is much of the so-called 
juvenile literature that is not fit to put into the hands of the 
child. The children should early be introduced to such 
authors as Hans Andersen, the Grimm brothers, and 
Charles Kingsley. Later on they will enjoy Longfellow, 
Whittier, Irving, Dickens, and others. There are many 
writers of later date that never fail to interest children. 
Kate Douglas Wiggin, Alice Hegan Rice, "Pansy," Olive 
Thorne Miller, James Otis, C. A. Stephens, and Margaret 
Sidney are but a few of the many who have become 
favorites. 

It is not enough to select good books and place them 
within reach of the pupil. The books should become a 
part of the life of the schoolroom. They should be used 
to stimulate and direct the intellectual growth of the chil- 
dren. Mere handing of books to the pupils by the teachers 
will not do. It deprives the children of the knowledge 
of the use of books. Besides, the teacher, by this passive 
process, cuts herself off from one of the best ways to under- 
stand the child's nature, and deprives herself of a vast 
amount of material for good work. 

Books have three main uses; to amuse, to instruct, and 
to develop mind and character. The teacher should be 
thoroughly acquainted with every book in the library, so 
that she may know in what kind of work she can best use 
each one. Books that are intended merely to amuse are 
not so useful in the school as in the home, unless they are 
properly handled by the teacher. Almost any work of 
fiction may be used as a basis for reading, spelling, and 
language work. Many of them are valuable in connection 



136 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

with history, geography, and general knowledge of the 
world. It is a poor story that cannot be used to instruct 
as well as to amuse, and a story that has no ethical value 
is to be avoided in school libraries. 

For instance, the boy reads On Fighting Decks in 1812, by 
F. H. Costello. To be entertained, he should be allowed 
to enjoy it thoroughly; but the teacher can make it serve 
to strengthen his school work without destroying his 
pleasure. Let the pupil be led to describe: 

(i) The wrecking of the sailboat. 

(2) The character of the coast of Maine. 

(3) The rescue of the frigate "Constitution." 

(4) Description of the frigate. 

(5) The fight of the "Guerriere," and "Java." 

(6) Experience in fighting pirates. 

Now let the teacher lead the boy from the fight with the 
pirates to the object of the pirates, the results, the cause 
of the battles, and so on. When this is thoroughly done 
the boy will have a fair knowledge of the War of 181 2, and 
will not realize that he has been actually studying history. 

Beautiful Joe, by Marshall Saunders, affords enjoyment 
and will teach pupils to treat animals kindly. The teacher 
can obtain a fund of material in this little volume. The chil- 
dren may be allowed to form a "Band of Mercy"; devote 
a part of a Friday afternoon each month to this work. Let 
them tell or write stories of their own experience, encourage 
them to read others, and in every way develop the spirit of 
kindness to animals. 

Books of history and travel will impart a general in- 
formation besides being very entertaining, for, to the child, 
truth is stranger than fiction. In these books, the teacher 



THE SCHOOL LIBRARY I37 

will find a whole world of fact and fancy to lead the pupil 
through. History and geography may be made more 
interesting to the pupils by a course of general reading 
judiciously directed by the teacher. 

Poetry is chief among the forms of literature which de- 
velop the imagination and the spiritual nature. The child 
will get more pleasure and understanding from it if he first 
hears it read well. Narrative poetry is the form best 
adapted to interest children in this kind of literature. 

(i) Read the poem to the children. 

(2) Get them to describe what they see with the mind's 

eye. 

(3) Help them to catch the feeling and spirit. 
Illustration. — "The Life of a Dewdrop," by Emily 

Rowe. Pupils may be led to answer the following ques- 
tions : 

(i) Of what is a dewdrop made? 

(2) Where does the dewdrop come from? 

(3) Why does it collect upon the grass and flowers? 

(4) How did the dewdrop change? 

If the teacher is familiar with the contents of the school 
library, however small it may be, she can bring up rein- 
forcements in the way of pictures, sketches, and the like, 
that will enrich the whole course of the pupil's school life, 
and create a love for the beautiful and the true, which will 
materially affect his life afterwards. 

In a great many of our country and village schools there 
are no libraries. It is in the hands of the teachers to 
remedy this fault. In some of our states the school boards 
are allowed a certain sum yearly for library purposes. In 
districts where the directors have not taken advantage of 



138 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND TlUi COMMUNITY 

this law, the teacher should remind them of their duty. 
There are many ways in which the teacher and pupils can 
cooperate to earn a library. The following suggestions 
may be helpful to those who wish to start a library or to 
increase the one they have: 

(i) First, every school should subscribe for as many 
really good papers and magazines as possible. The teacher 
will find endless ways to make these useful. And the re- 
sourceful teacher will not be troubled about the money to 
pay for the subscriptions. A freewill offering of five cents 
per month, possibly less, from each family would do it. 
The children will delight in earning money for such a 
purpose. And the papers themselves would be a fine 
foundation for a library. We shall see later how this may 
be managed. 

(2) Have entertainments; restore the old-time exhibi- 
tions. Charge a suitable admission, being sure to have it 
understood that the proceeds are for a library. 

(3) Pupils may be encouraged to do work for the school 
that the Board usually hires done, such as cleaning the 
schoolhouse, mowing the lawn, sawing wood, and so on. 
In one school, the teacher and the boys sawed the year's 
wood and used the money to purchase school songbooks. 

(4) In the summer time, ice cream socials, strawberry 
festivals, and the like, are quite sure to be well patronized. 
In the winter, chicken pie socials and oyster suppers will 
prove equally attractive. 

(5) When interest in the school library has been suffi- 
ciently aroused, allow the pupils to solicit subscriptions. 
Encourage them at all times to be on the lookout for 
chances to increase the Hbrary fund. 



TIIK SCHOOL LIBRARY 139 

(6) Write to the Bureau of Education for a list of their 
publications. Also get as many as possible of the Farm 
Bulletins; there is scarcely a one of these that cannot 
be made vitally interesting to the country pupils. When 
the farm boys and girls realize the interest and importance 
of the country, life will grow incomparably broader and 
richer and the city will have fewer attractions. 

(7) Send some postal cards to the manufacturing 
companies. They publish a wealth of industrial informa- 
tion, and are glad indeed to send their literature into such 
a broad advertising avenue. Here is a list of subjects for 
composition, suggested from a page of advertisements: 

A Cup of Chocolate. A Spool of Silk. 

American Porcelain. Making Pocket Knives. 

(8) Canvass the neighborhood for papers and magazines. 
Procure a liberal supply of heavy manila paper, needles, 
coarse thread, scissors, pen and ink, a bottle of library 
paste, pasteboards, some large envelopes 8^ by ii, and a 
quantity of pasteboard boxes. The latter should be uni- 
form in size and large enough to accommodate the big 
envelopes. Get some handy boy to make a frame for the 
boxes. A convenient frame contains thirty-six boxes, 
arranged in tiers of six. 

Now let the teacher go through the papers and magazines 
with a blue pencil, marking such stories, articles, and 
items as she thinks may be helpful and interesting. Pupils 
may clip and assort these. In the case of continued 
stories and long articles, simply tear out the pages, and 
arrange in consecutive order. For example, suppose one 
of these stories is "Penrod and the Pageant," from an old 
magazine. Assemble the pages, and place them inside a 



I40 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

fold of manila paper, cut just a trifle larger. Sew along 
the left margin, being careful to fasten the ends securely. 
Now let some good penman write the title and the author's 
name on the cover page: 

PENROD AND THE PAGEANT 

by 
Booth Tarkington 

and the first "book" is ready for the library. 

After the "books" are bound and shelved, attention may 
be given to the other clipped matter. Label the boxes 
"United States," "Foreign Countries," "Industries," 
"The Months and Special Days," "Trees," "Animals," 
"Flowers," "Birds," "Authors," "Literature," and the 
like. For example, imagine the box marked "Foreign 
Countries" open before you: Take a bundle of envelopes, 
labeling them "England," "China," "Japan," and so on. 
Page clippings and others of large size may be indexed on 
the proper envelope, folded, and slipped inside. Here are 
some subjects chosen at random from the envelope de- 
voted to "Japan" in my own book of "Foreign Countries": 
Animals of Japan, Japanese Life and Legends, The Japa- 
nese School Boy, A Japanese Home, Illustrations. The 
illustrations are in a smaller envelope, and comprise a 
veritable mine. 

Catalogues, government bulletins, and pamphlets may be 
filed entire, or shorn to school use, if space is limited. Short 
articles and items should be pasted on cardboard before 
filing. In this way a valuable reference library may be 
accumulated, a little at a time. Its resources and possi- 
bilities are unlimited. Composition writing could never 



THE SCHOOL LIBRARY I4I 

be a bugbear in a schoolroom thus richly endowed, and 
think of the "helps" in hterature, history, and geography, 
not to mention the bond of interest established between 
school and home! 

Let the interest in the library once be started, and it is 
surprising how many ways and means pupils and patrons 
will suggest to enlarge it. In a certain school, the library 
has grown to more than one hundred volumes, through the 
untiring efforts of pupils, patrons, and teacher. They are 
greatly interested in the work and are now making prepara- 
tions for another entertainment. One old lady said she 
had read every book in the library, and she hoped they 
would get some more soon. 

The library affords an excellent avenue for reaching the 
parents. They will naturally wish to read the books they 
hear their children discussing at home, and thus pupils, 
parents, and teachers are drawn closer together by a com- 
mon interest. The teacher we have mentioned as instru- 
mental in securing songbooks for his school read The 
Booster Schoolmaster to his pupils by way of sowing library 
seed. Before he was half through the book, the pupils 
began to bring in requests to borrow it. The book then 
made the rounds of the neighborhood, followed closely by 
others, until a library in District Number lo was the thing 
most earnestly desired. 



CHAPTER XVI 
NATURE STUDY 

Nature study in the schools is a vital factor in the prime 
motive in education: character building. It has for its 
aim: 

1. To develop the child's higher nature. 

2. To increase his happiness. 

3. To broaden his horizon by making him better ac- 

quainted with his physical environment. 

4. To prepare him to appreciate the literature that 

nature has inspired. 

5. To develop a sympathetic interest in living things. 

6. To develop his intellectual powers. 

7. To lead him to love nature and the Author of 

nature. 
Many teachers, fully realizing the importance of nature 
study, still merely skirt the subject. Why? They have 
had no special training and fear to take hold of the work. 
Let those who hesitate read Phoebe Gary's delightfully 
inspiring poem "The Book of Nature," and turn to the 
abundance of choice material which the Creator has pro- 
vided in every locality. For, after all, personal observa- 
tion is the best teacher, and there are the pages of Bur- 
roughs, Gibson, Bryant, Olive Thorne Miller, and scores 
of other delightful nature lovers to turn for guidance, when 
inspiration and enthusiasm flag. The teacher with a real 
love for nature in her heart need not fear failure. She has 

142 



NATURE STUDY I43 

but to arouse a genuine, sympathetic interest in the chil- 
dren and start them upon Httle investigating tours to 
discover many of nature's secrets. Undoubtedly the 
teacher will be most successful with subjects which appeal 
most forcibly to her personally, but she must keep time- 
liness in mind, remembering that 'all things by season 
seasoned are.' 

Material in the first three or four grades should be chosen 
with special reference to the culture of the child's higher 
life. Perhaps nothing in nature has power to delight 
children and concentrate their thought so quickly as the 
habits and activities of animals. Flowers and plants, 
however, have the advantage over animals in the fact that 
all stages of development can be studied at the same time, 
and they are, as a rule, more easily obtained and more easily 
cared for. The awakening seeds and unfolding blossoms 
have special attractions for the children, and they are 
also beautifully adapted to cultivate a sympathetic interest 
in nature. In addition to the study of plants and animals, 
such forces as water, air, and sunlight should receive special 
attention. 

Pictures and related literature are invaluable in supple- 
menting nature study. The teacher who would lead her 
pupils to see, to enjoy, and to love nature, must dwell with 
the poet and the artist as well as with the scientist; she 
must learn to appreciate something of the beauties they 
saw on every hand and to enter into the joy of their 
portrayal. 

Try appealing to the artistic and poetic side of the child's 
nature by reading bits of prose and verse describing scenes 
in nature. Question pupils to make sure that they have a 



144 THE TEACHER, TKE SCHOOL, AND TPIE COMMUNITY 

clear mental picture of the scene portrayed. The foUowhig 
verses will illustrate: 

In the oldest woods I know a brooklet, 
That bubbles over stones and roots, 
And ripples out of hollow places, 
Like music out of flutes. 

There creeps the pungent breath of cedars. 
Rich coolness wraps the air about, 
Whilst through clear pools electric flashes 
Betray the watchful trout. 

I know where wild things lurk and linger 
In groves as gray and grand as time; 
I know where God has written poems 
Too strong for words or rime.^ 

Other nature poems that appeal to children are: 

"The Wild Geese" and "The Sandpiper," by Celia Thaxter. 

"The Throstle" and "The Brook," by Tennyson. 

"St. Martin's Summer" and "The Last Walk in Autumn," 

by Whittier. 
"The First Bluebird" and "When the Green Gits Back in 

the Trees," by Riley. 
"March" and "The Daffodils," by Wordsworth. 
" Easter Dawn," by Lucy Larcom. 

Encourage the children to commit choice verses to mem- 
ory and to render them with expression. Read them selec- 
tions from Burroughs's Wake Robin. Ruf us Choate attributed 
much of his power as an orator to the habit formed when a 
boy, of reciting the most beautiful passages from everything 
he read. 

^Maurice Thompson. 



nature study i45 

Spring Nature Study 
The teacher who cannot find in the unfolding buds of 
spring, the fresh-awakened flowers, and the joyous bird 
songs, material for a myriad of nature lessons has indeed 
missed her calling. Begin with the most obvious thing: 
the signs of spring. Get expressions from the children 
as to why they know it is spring. 

The bluebird chants from the elm's long branches, 

A hymn to welcome the budding year. 
The south wind wanders from field to forest, 

And softly whispers, "The Spring is here." ^ 

Ask the pupils to bring in poems of spring. 
Read and discuss such poems as: 

"The Voice of Spring," by Mrs. Hemans. 
"Between Winter and Spring," by Lucy Larcom. 
"The Voice of the Grass," by Sarah Roberts. 
Selections from Signs and Seasons, by Burroughs. 
"Spring," by Celia Thaxter. 
"Rollicking Robin," by Kate Upson Clark. 
"Buttercups and Daisies," by Mary Howitt. 
"The Bluebird," by Eben Rexford. 

The last four selections should be memorized. 

THE WIND 

Study the parts in nature played by the wind and the rain. 

1. At what time of the ydar does the wind blow most? 

2. Of what use is the wind? 

(a) It melts the snow and dries up the mud. 

(b) It blows up the rain clouds. 

(c) Later, it scatters the pollen. 

^William Cullen Bryant. 



146 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

"The Wind," by Stevenson, "Ulysses and the Bag of 
Winds" and "The Four Winds," by Andersen, are interest- 
ing selections to accompany the study of the wind. 

THE RAIN 

1. When do we have the most rain? 

2. Of what use is it? (To help melt the snow, to bathe 
and purify the earth, to warm the ground, to soak into the 
waiting seeds, and to help the plants grow.) 

3. Where does the rain come from? 
There are many good "rain" poems: 

"Who Likes the Rain?" by Clara Bates. 
"Rain Songs," by Dunbar. 
"The Rainy Day," by Longfellow. 
"The Rain Song of the Robin," by Kate Upson Clark. 
"The Rainbow," by Frank Dempster Sherman. 
"The Rainbow," from "The Song of Hiawatha," by Long- 
fellow. 

FLOWERS 

1. Have the pupils name the first spring wild flowers. 
(The earliest are hepatica, bloodroot, Dutchman's 

breeches, spring beauty, anemone or windflower, trillium 
or wake-robin, and violet, in the order named. If possible, 
teach pupils to know each of these flowers.) 

2. Bring in poems about flowers. 

3. Make lists of well-known spring flowers. 

4. Study various flower shapes. Develop the terms: 
corolla, petals, calyx, stamen, pistil, pollen. 

5. Of what use is the pollen? Discuss the different ways 
in which it is scattered. 

6. Why do so many flowers have bright-colored petals? 

7. Why do flowers have perfume? 



NATURE STUDY I 47 

Tell the legend of the narcissus, the hyacinth, the iris. 
Ask the pupils to bring in flower legends in poem and story. 
Grow plants and bulbs for observation. 

Memorize "The Windflower," by Lucy Larcom. 

Readings: 

"The Star That Became a Lily" and "The Pea Blossom," by 

Andersen. 
"To the Dandelion," by Lowell. 
" Jack-in-the-pulpit," by Clara Smith. 
References: 

Little Flower Folks, by Mara L. Pratt. 

Flowers and Their Friends, by M. W. Morley. 

How to Know the Wild Flowers, by Mrs. W. S. Dana. 

THE TREES 

A series of preparatory talks should pave the way for field 
work with the trees. The following topics are suggestive: 

1. What the tree is. 

2. The work of the leaves. 

3. How trees grow. 

(a) What happens to the tree if the heartwood is 
injured? 

(b) What if the sapwood is injured? 

(c) Why do trees die? 

The three important parts of the tree, roots, trunk or 
stem, and leaves should be taught. Altogether a tree is 
made up of earth elements, water, and buoyant, invisible 
gases. If we burn a stick of wood in the open air, these 
are released. The gases pass off, the water goes up in 
invisible steam, and all that is left are the ashes. The 
ashes never comprise more than one tenth the weight of the 
original timber. 



I4S THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

The leaves are the magicians who constructed a strong 
and sturdy tree of these materials. Each leaf besides 
being a breathing organ is a tiny factory in itself, devoted 
principally to the manufacture of starch. It obtains 
raw materials from the air, and from the moisture which 
the roots obtam from the soil. The sun furnishes power. 
The machinery is the soft green leaf pulp, called chlo- 
rophyll. 

The stem has regular avenues leading from the roots to 
the leaves and back again. Raw material travels in some, 
and Hfe-giving sap in others. The upward routes are by 
way of the youngest fibers of the sapwood. Return trips 
are made through the inner bark or cambium. 

This cambium is made up of millions of cells, which grow 
and divide into others as long as the food supply lasts. 
Thus each cell may increase to two, four, eight, sixteen, 
and so on. In this way a new layer of woody tissue and 
one of bark is built up each year by the cambium, adding to 
the girth of the tree. But the cambium never adds to its 
own width. It remains always a thin layer of dividing 
cells, constantly adding to the bark on one side and to the 
wood on the other. 

The tree grows taller by means of the green shoots on the 
terminal branch. Cell division is the most rapid in these 
green shoots. Because of the chlorophyll in them they can 
make their own food, independently of the leaves. And 
the cambium cells in them have the power to lengthen as 
well as to thicken the stem. This power is lacking in the 
cambium cells of the trunk and yearling branches. So the 
shoots grow by leaps and bounds. 

4. The Sleep of the Trees. 



NATURE STUDY 1 49 

Among Green Trees, by J. E. Rogers; A Year among the 
Trees by W. Flagg; and Familiar Trees, by F. S. Mathews, 
are useful reference books. 

Now the pupil is ready for intelligent study with the 
trees themselves. Note their appearance in early spring. 

1. The sap. 

(a) Its use to the tree. 

(b) Its use to man: maple sugar, turpentine and 
pitch, gums, and so on. 

2. The swelling buds. 

(a) Their arrangement on the twigs. 

(b) The three kinds — flower, leaf, and mixed buds. 

How wonderfully Nature does up her packages! Each 
bud is wrapped in layers of scales, securely gummed together, 
and the whole given a coat of varnish, that it may be safe 
from the elements. As a further precaution some buds are 
carefully lined with fur, others with cotton or with tiny 
plant hairs. Sometimes in place of scales there is a nice 
little brown cap tightly fitted over the bud. Sycamore 
buds have such caps, neatly covered on the outside with fine 
hair. Some of the little caps are quite pointed. They con- 
tain leaf buds. The others have both leaves and flowers, and 
are plump and rounded. The willows, too, wear caps, or 
leathery hoods, aU made in one piece and lined with silvery 
fur. The buds of the wild cherry are slender and pointed, 
and each sits upon a little shelf. Butternut buds also occupy 
a shelf, and over them is a hairy ridge, much resembling a 
pair of eyebrows. They are perhaps the oddest of all buds. 
Their pungent odor and general clamminess would reveal 
their identity in the dark. Black walnut buds are clothed 
in rich gray velvet. Those of the beech taper to delicate 
points, and are wrapped in scales thin as tissue paper, and 
covered with soft, silken hair.^ 
^ McFee, Tree Truths and Fables. 



150 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

3. The blossoms or fruit buds. 

(a) Why do most trees put forth blossoms first? 

(b) Examine the blossoms of the pussy willow, 
the maple, the sycamore, the horse-chestnut, and 
the apple tree. 

4. Watch the unfolding of various leaf buds. Note 
how cleverly each was creased and folded in its tiny 
parcel. 

5. Learn to know the common trees. 

Poems: "Apple Seed John," by Lydia Maria Child. 

"The Planting of the Apple Tree" and "A Forest Hymn," by 

Bryant. 
"Forest Blessings," by Margaret Sangster. 
"The Vine and the Oak," by Emerson. 
"The Birch Tree," "The Oak," "The Maple," by Lowell. 
"The Haunted Tree," by Wordsworth. 

THE BIRDS 

Now the days are full of music. 

All the birds are back again; 
In the tree tops, in the meadows, 

In the woodlands, on the plain. 
See them darting through the sunshine, 

Hear them singing loud and clear; 
How they love the busy springtime, 

Sweetest time of all the year! 

1. What birds come first? Keep a chart and note the 
date of first arrivals. 

2. Have the pupils make lists of the birds they know. 

3. Read selections from "The Birds of Killingworth," 
by Longfellow. Discuss the value of birds. 

4. What birds are helpful to the farmer? 



NATURE STUDY I5I 

5. What bird is especially helpful to the cotton 
planter?^ 

6. What birds are valuable in the forest? 

7. Have pupils make lists of birds that hop, birds that 
walk, birds that sing on the wing, birds that tell their names, 
birds that sing at night, birds that hunt, birds that are 
hunted. 

8. Where do birds sleep at night? 

9. How and where do birds build their nests? 

(a) Study specimens of different nests. But do 
not tear them down for the purpose. 

(b) Do birds build new nests each year? 

(c) Do all birds build nests? What bird lays its 
egg in the nests of other birds? 

10. Name some bird enemies. (It is estimated that 
man alone kills five million birds annually) . 

11. Talk about migration. Some of the great bird 
family are coming and going all the time. 

(a) How are the birds guided? Why do they go? 

(b) Do they fly day and night on the journey? 

(c) Do they fly very high? 

(d) Do they ever lose their way? 

Watch for the flocks of ducks and geese. Explain that 
the leader flies ahead at the point where the two lines of 
birds meet. When he becomes too tired to guide the 
flock, he falls back, and a second takes his place, without 
breaking the perfect order of the rank. Watch for "pass- 
ing callers." Many delightful bird friends may be made 
in this way. 

1 Because of the great destruction of the quail, the cotton boll weevil is 
yearly working more and more damage. 



152 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

Poems: 

"The Birds' Orchestra," "The Robin," " Yellowbird," by 

CeHa Thaxter. 
"The O'Lincoln Family," by Wilson Flagg. 
"Robert of Lincoln," "The Return of the Birds," by 

Bryant. 
"To the Skylark," by Shelley. 
"Sir Robin," by Lucy Larcom. 
"The Pewee," by John T. Trowbridge. 
"Warbling of the Blackbirds," by Jean Ingelow. 
(Ask the pupils to add to the Ust.) 
Songs: 

"When Robin Comes to Town." 
"The Birdies' Ball." 
"Robin Redbreast." 
"Don't Kill the Birds." 
Readings: 

Fresh Fields, by John Burroughs. 

Citizen Bird, by Mabel Osgood Wright. 
References: 

Bird Neighbors, by Neltje Blanchan. 

Our Birds and Their Nestlings, by Margaret C. Walker. 

Birds Through the Year, by A. F. Gilmore. 

GEJRMINATION 

Every clod feels a stir of might. 

An instinct within it that reaches and towers, 
And groping bhndly above it for light, 

Climbs to a soul in grass and flowers.^ 

I. Read and discuss with the children: "A Laughing 
Chorus," by Emerson; "Waiting to Grow," by French; and 
"The Little Brown Seed in the Furrow," by Benham. 
Pupils should commit these poems to memory. 

^ James Russell Lowell; "Vision of Sir Launfal." 



NATURE STUDY 1 53 

2. Select a few representative seeds, such as pea, bean, 
corn, and squash, for study. Plant them in boxes of sand 
and watch their growth. Help pupils to discover that 
growing seeds need air, moisture, and warmth. Plant a 
few seeds in a moist sponge for easy observation. Keep 
the sponge evenly moist, and hang in a dark place until 
germination is fairly started. 

3. Compare bean, pea, and corn seedlings. Why is the 
stem of the bean bent into a loop as it comes up to the light? 

4. Develop the terms coat, cotyledon, caulicle, and 
plumule, and have the children sec what each does for the 
plant. 

5. How does the plumule of the bean differ from that of 
the corn? Which of these seedlings has the greatest num- 
ber of root hairs? 

6. Discuss the use of root, stem, and leaves. 
Read /'A Poppy Seed," by Celia Thaxter. 

Fall Nature Study 

What does it mean when the crickets chirp, 
And away to the southland the wild geese steer; 
When apples are falling and nuts are brown? 
These are the signs that autumn is here. 

Question the children for further signs of autumn. Have 
them bring in poems regarding Jack Frost. Talk about the 
preparations on every hand that Nature is making for win- 
ter. How does the wind sound in the fall? Read and dis- 
cuss "The Gladness of Nature," by Bryant. 

Poems: 

"Lost: The Summer," by R. M. Alden. 

"Fall Fashions," by Edith M. Thomas. 



154 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

"September," and "October's Bright Blue Weather," by 

Helen Hunt Jackson. 
"October," by Wordsworth. 
"Merry Autumn," by Paul Laurence Dunbar. 
"The Night Wind," by Eugene Field. 

THE FLOWERS 

1. What flowers bloom along the roadsides at this season? 

2. What flowers are blossoming in the garden? 

3. Make a collection of bulbs. Learn how to store them 
for the winter. What bulbs should be bedded at this 
season? Plant hyacinth, tulip, and narcissus bulbs in pots 
for forcing. They make lovely Christmas gifts. 

4. Tell the legend of the chrysanthemum; the legend of 
the goldenrod and aster; the legend of the closed gentian. 

Poems: 

"Goldenrod," in Nature in Verse, by Mary Lovejoy. 
"Death of the Flowers," and "To the Fringed Gentian," 
by Bryant. 

THE TREES 

The splendor of the trees in autumn is ever a source of 
wonder and delight to the children. Encourage them to 
collect and press leaves for the decoration of the school- 
room. Group trees dressed in red and yellow, crimson, 
purple and green. Notice which trees change their leaves 
first. Explain why the trees are so gayly dressed. Once 
we thought the rich colors due to Jack Frost, now we know 
it is to the decaying mineral matter in the leaves. All 
summer long the leaves have busily sorted certain minerals 
from the air and water; the tree could not use them so the 
leaves obligingly stored them away in their own cells. 



NATURE STUDY I55 

How they are repaid for their labor in their beautiful dresses 
of every sheen and hue! 

Read and discuss, "How the Leaves Came Down," 
by Susan Coolidge. Explain the real reason for the falling 
leaves: The sap of the tree absorbs the living matter and 
the food cells of the leaves as the cold weather draws near, 
so that the tree may store up enough nourishment on which 
to live through the winter, and to feed her tiny leaf buds 
until they get old enough to look after themselves. Have 
the children examine leaves that are ready to fall, and lead 
them to discover the layer of tissue which has been built 
across the end of the petiole ; this loosens the leaf stalk and 
it only waits for a gale of wind to carry it away. 

Remember next year's buds are formed before the old 
leaves fall. Autumn is really the beginning of the year as 
far as the tree's life is concerned. The children will de- 
light in Looking for the tiny babies. A willow branch will 
best serve for the first lesson, for its buds are the easiest 
to see. The bud is right at the base of the leaf stalk, 
enclosed in a single wrapping. It is made of two tiny 
leaves joined by their margins. Strip off the wrapper 
carefully with a needle and the bud is laid bare. But you 
cannot see how perfect it really is without a magnifying 
glass. There are five or six of next year's leaves, complete 
in every way, even to the veins and the delicate toothing 
of the edge. Some buds are very small and hard to find. 
If you were to pull off an old sumac leaf you would likely 
fail to see the bud. But wipe off the tiny drop of milk 
which fills the wound and you will find a small, pale hump. 
With a magnifying glass and a needle you can pick out 
the tiny cluster of next year's leaves. Perhaps the most 



156 THE TEyVCHKR, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

interesting bud chamber of all is that of the honey locust. 
It is formed at the base of the old leaf stalk, and is a dear 
little room, shaped like a horse's hoof, all lined with a wall 
of white fur, and cuddhng three or four baby leaf buds. 
The leaf buds of the sycamore are hidden in a chamber 
under the stem of the old leaf. 

Pupils will be interested in studying the witch-hazel 
which, unlike other trees, blossoms in the fall. 

Poems: 

"Autumn Woods," by Bryant. 
"Under the October Maples," by Lowell. 
"Before the Leaves Fall," by Margaret Sangster. 
"How the Leaves Came Down," by Susan Coolidge. 
"The Maple and the Pine," "October's Party," and "Autumn 
Leaves," by George Cooper. 

SEEDTIME 

All summer long the plants and trees have been preparing 
for this the most important time of all the year. They have 
absorbed the sunshine and the rain, the light and the air, 
and the food which the hundreds of tiny rootlets have 
gathered from the soil in order to grow and perfect their 
seeds. And they have accomplished a noble work; for 
truly a seed is a most wonderful thing! Take, for example, 
the poppy seed. How very small it is! And yet a won- 
drous glory is folded inside. 

Robes, my dear, that are fit for kings; 
Scarlet splendor that dazzles the eyes; 
Buds, flowers, leaves, stalks, — so many things! ^ 

Many plants furnish seeds so rich in nourishment that 
they are good for food. (Ask the children to make a list 

' Celia Thaxter. 



NATURE STUDY I 57 

of these.) It is not necessary for nature to take care in 
fashioning these seeds so that they may be easily distribu- 
ted. Men will look after this business. This is also 
true of many of the seeds in the flower garden. We 
gladly gather them and tie them up in neatly-labeled 
packages ready for planting when spring comes. It is 
different with the wild flowers and weeds. If their species 
are renewed, it must be by their own efforts. Call atten- 
tion to the dandelion and the thistle. Pull one of the airy 
silken balls to pieces and note the tiny seed at the end of 
each plume. How swiftly it sails with the wind! Lead 
the children to note other devices for seed distribution; 
have them group the plants according to the agent used. 
Thus: 

Sails — dandelion, milkweed, cat-tail, thistle. 

Hooks — burdocks, sticktights. 

Wings — maple, linden. 

Springs — touch-me-not, witch-hazel. 

Often Mother Nature devises very cunning treasure 
boxes for the safe-keeping of her precious seeds. These 
boxes are not like any that we use. There are many 
different kinds. Such odd shapes and sizes and so won- 
drously colored! The children will enjoy making a collec- 
tion of these. Make a list of plants that protect their 
seeds in burr, shell, and pod treasure boxes. Many seeds 
are concealed within treasure boxes that are themselves 
used for food, as the different kinds of fruit and vegetables. 
Take the watermelon for instance. The rich luscious fruit 
that we find so delicious is only a careful protection for 
the host of seeds in the very heart of the big treasure box. 
And the apple, the pear, and the orange — to us these are 



158 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUMTY 

the most important things about the trees which bear them. 
But to the trees themselves it is the little seeds within these 
richly colored treasure boxes that are important. 

How are seeds scattered? By the wind, by water, and 
by animals. Coconuts and certain beans and grains 
have been carried clear across the sea by the action of the 
waves, and have been planted upon new shores. Man 
scatters more seeds than all other agencies combined; he 
is continually buying, selling, and planting seeds. Hang 
pods, shells and burrs where children can watch them open- 
ing. Open a ripe milkweed pod; put the seeds in a bottle, 
so that the pupils may see how many seeds were packed in 
the tiny treasure box. Estimate the number of seeds 
growing on a single plant. Why are the seeds provided 
with sails? What would happen if they all settled down 
close about the mother plant? Lead the children to see that 
the struggle for life is less where the plants are different 
than in a clump where all are alike. 

Make a school collection of garden, field, and weed seeds. 
For this purpose two-ounce bottles with screw tops are 
best. They may be labeled as useful seeds, pests, ways of 
distribution, and so on. 

Bring in as many nut "samples" as possible, for a nut 
party. 

Let all the work with seeds, fruit, and nuts typify the glory 
of the harvest home. (Read Dunbar's "Merry Autumn.") 

Songs: 

"October," and "Nutting Time." 
Poems: 

"The Pumpkin," "The Fruit Gift," "The Huskers," by 
Whittier. 



NATURE STUDY 



159 



"The Cornfields," by Mary Howitt. 

"Indian Summer," by Emily Dickinson. 

''The Cornstalk Fiddle," by Paul Laurence Dunbar. 

"When the Frost is on the Punkin," by J. Whitcomb Riley. 

"Maize for the Nation's Emblem," by Celia Thaxter. 

"A Thanksgiving," by Lucy Larcom. 

BIRDS 

Read Stedman's "Flight of the Birds." Talk about 
migration. 

1. Have pupils tell which birds are the first to go. 
Why do they leave? 

2. Do the birds that go south nest there? 

3. What birds stay all the year? Bring out the idea that 
birds living on worms and insects could find no food in 
winter. Those living on seeds sometimes remain in the 
North if the weather is not too severe. 

4. Hawks are more or less troublesome at this time of 
year. Talk about the common chicken hawk, the little 
blue darter, the sparrow hawk, and the sharp-shinned hawk. 
Are the hawks enemies of mankind? (See Birds That 
Hunt and Are Hunted, by Neltje Blanchan.) 

5. Learn to know some of the common water birds. 

6. Do the birds change their dress for winter? Bobolink 
and goldfinch are familiar types. 

Poems: 

"To a Waterfowl," by Bryant. 

"The Herons of Elmwood," by Longfellow. 

"The Departure of the Swallow," by W. Howitt. 

"The Wanderings of the Birds." 

"The Last Robin," by H. S. Washburn. 

"Story of a Blackbird," by Alice Cary. 



l6o THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 
ANIMALS AND INSECTS 

When we are getting ready for winter, what are all the 
wood animals doing? Do they know that winter is com- 
ing? How do the squirrels, the chipmunks, and the field 
mice prepare for winter? Who has discovered the fur- 
lined nest of a field mouse under some low, sheltered 
shrub, or dug into a squirrel's underground storehouse? 
Does the rabbit prepare for winter? Question children to 
bring out stories and habits of these little friends in fur. 
Read and discuss selections from Sharp Eyes by Gibson; 
read Queer Ways of Br'er Rabbit by W. Long. Mention 
enemies of the squirrels and rabbits, hawks, owls, weasels, 
foxes, hedgehogs, cats, and man. Read Riverby by Bur- 
roughs, and the fable of the Hare and the Tortoise. 

How does the bear prepare for winter? He eats a great 
deal and gets very fat. Then he hunts about for a snug 
den in a hillside or for a sheltered hollow log or tree; here 
he sleeps until roused by the voices of spring. Ask the 
children to learn about other animals that spend the winter 
in sleep. Read Ways of Wood Folk, by William Long. 

What about toads, frogs, and turtles? They burrow deep 
into the mud before the ground freezes. Bats hang them- 
selves up by their toes in some cosy corner and sleep most 
of the time. The nuthatches, chickadees, and woodpeckers 
make many a winter meal from the countless insects and 
larvae sheltered under the bark of the trees. Flies creep 
into snug corners and cracks and lie as though dead, creep- 
ing out occasionally on warm, dry days. Spiders crawl 
into their dens and go fast asleep. Caterpillars build 
cradles for themselves on the sunny side of twigs and limbs, 
and under rocks and logs. How many have seen these odd 



NATURE STUDY l6l 

cradles, or cocoons, as they are called? They are woven 
of fine silken thread, with now and then a bit of moss 
twined in for warmth and strength, and so fashioned 
that the caterpillar is securely shut up inside. Here he 
sheds his furry coat and dons a shiny, hard, brown one. 
The old coat is rolled up at his feet, and he goes to sleep 
snug and warm till spring calls. Who knows what hap- 
pens then? 

Talk about the habits of frogs and toads. Of what use 
are they? Frogs destroy large numbers of slugs and insects 
and serve in their turn as food for other animals. Toads 
destroy countless worms and larvae that are injurious to 
vegetation. They are valued allies in the garden and ex- 
cellent flytraps ! > 

What becomes of the bees and wasps in winter? Who in 
the summer has seen where a wasp has dug a tunnel in 
the packed sand, laid its eggs at the bottom, provisioned it 
with grasshoppers, and then filled it up so carefully that 
there was not a sign of the secret chamber? 

How do the ants, beetles, and grasshoppers spend the 
winter? 

References: 

Bass, Florence. Highways and Byways and Stories of 

Insect Life. 
Beard, J. C. Curious Homes and Their Tenants. 
Burroughs, John. Birds and Bees. 
Comstock, J. H. The Spider Book. 
Ingersoll, Ernest. Wild Neighbors. 
Kelly, M. A. B. Short Stories of Our Shy Neighbors. 
Morley, M. W. Bee People. 
Patri, Angelo. White Patch. 

1 Farmers' Bulletin No. 196: Usefulness of the American Toad. 



l62 the teacher, the school, and the community 

Winter Nature Study 
Have the pupils observe frost pictures on the windows. 
What is the difference between dew and frost? Does the frost 
ever do harm? Mention some good services it performs : 

1. It breaks up the soil. 

2. It crumbles rocks to help form soil. 

3. It opens nuts for the children and the squirrels. 

4. It forms ice and snowflakes. 

What did the brook do when it felt the frost coming? 
Help the children to see the beauty in Lowell's lines. 

The little brook heard it and built a roof 

'Neath which he could house him, winter proof; 

All night by the white stars' frosty gleams 

He groined his arches and matched his beams; 

Slender and clear were his crystal spars 

As the lashes of light that trim the stars; 

He sculptured every summer delight 

In his halls and chambers out of sight; 

Sometimes his tinkling waters slipt; 

Down through a frost-leaved forest crypt, 

Long, sparkling aisles of steel-stemmed trees 

Bending to counterfeit a breeze; 

Sometimes the roof no fretwork knew 

But silvery mosses that downward grew; 

Sometimes it was carved in sharp relief 

With quaint arabesques of ice fern leaf; 

Sometimes it was simply smooth and clear 

For the gladness of heaven to shine through, and here 

He had caught the nodding bulrush tops 

And hung them thickly with diamond drops, 

That crystalled the beams of moon and sun. 

And made a star of every one; 

No mortal builder's most rare device 

Could match this winter palace of ice. 



NATURE STUDY 163 

Read also "The Frost," by Hannah Gould; "The Frost 
Spirit," by Whittier, and similar poems. 

Put a dark cloth outside the window and catch some 
snowflakes upon it. Have the children see how many 
kinds they can find. Note that each one has six points - — 
no matter how different they are. Of what use is the 
snow? Discuss icebergs, ice fields, the land of the Eskimo. 
The teacher will need to draw heavily upon her store of 
pictures to make these real to the children. Read from 
such books as Little People of the Snow, by L. E. Mulets, 
and The Land of the Long Night, by P. B. Du Chaillu. 

Talk about winter sports. Question the children to get 
their ideal of a winter evening at home. Read the evening 
scene from Whitter's "Snow Bound." 

THE TREES 

Winter is the best season of the year to read the sign 
language of the trees. From it we may gather all manner 
of interesting things concerning their hopes and disappoint- 
ments, the trouble with their neighbors, the secret of age, 
how they prune themselves, how they take care of cuts, 
bruises, and broken limbs, and their struggle with a long 
catalogue of tree diseases, most of which are catching, like 
the scarlet fever and the mumps. Now, too, we may best 
observe the shape and branching of the trees and make a 
collection of woods. 

Show the children that it is possible to discern the kind 
of a tree at a distance by its outline alone. Take, for 
example, the full-grown oak as it stands rugged against the 
winter sky. Note the flare of its broad base, the wide 
sweep of its gnarled and mighty arms, each one resembling 



1 04 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

a tree. In the whole aspect of its breadth and tolerance is 
the dignity of a patriarch, the majesty of a king. 

A song to the oak — the brave old oak 

Who hath ruled in the greenwood long; 
Here's health and renown to his broad green crown, 

And his fifty arms so strong. 
There's fear in his frown when the sun goes down. 

And the fire in the west fades out; 
And he showeth his might on a wild midnight, 

When the storms through his branches shout.^ 

Study the shape of the elm; compare with an umbrella 
or vase. Note the graceful, arching branches; the rough, 
dark-gray bark. 

Find examples of trees that send out their branches 
horizontally, like an apple tree; or incline them toward the 
earth, like a willow; or hollow them cup fashion, like the 
sassafras; or build them up mushroom shape, like the pine; 
or into pyramids, tall and straight, like the poplar; or that 
allow them to wave at the pleasure of the winds, like the 
birch. 

Always the trees have been reverenced for their grace 
and beauty. Simple-minded people of all races have wor- 
shipped the spirit of the trees, and their records in myth 
and folklore are a source of never-failing interest to the 
children. Read ''The Talking Oak," by Tennyson. Tell 
the legend of the aspen tree, the story of the Lombardy 
poplar and the pot of gold, and other tree legends. Poets, 
artists, and naturalists have found the trees themes for 
closest study, until now there is scarcely a tree that is not 
said to typify some virtue of humanity. The oak is an 

^ Henry F. Chorley. 



NATURE STUDY 165 

example of rugged strength; the pine represents constancy; 
the beech, with its low, wide-spreading branches, is a pic- 
ture of hospitality; and so on. Coleridge personified the 
white birch as the "Lady of the Woods," the ash is spoken 
of as "The Venus of the Forest," the Psalmist compares a 
godly man to a tree that is planted by rivers of water, whose 
leaf shall not wither. Pupils will enjoy searching the 
pages of Hterature for t^pes, personifications, and emblems; 
they may also be led to form s^Tnbols of their own. 

It is well to study certain trees as individual types. Let 
us consider the oak for instance. 

THE OAK 

1. Shape of trunk, color and texture of bark; arrange- 
ment of branches; the strong taproot deep in the ground, 
the wide- spreading horizontal roots near the surface. 

2. Kinds of oaks — about 300 in the world. Talk about 
the cork oaks. Find out how cork is prepared for the 
market. 

3. The blossom: the oak bears two kinds of flowers on 
the same tree. The staminate flowers are in catkins. The 
pistillate flowers look like tiny balls. The pistil becomes 
the nut of the acorn. 

4. The fruit: some oaks drop their acorns in early fall; 
others wait a year and a half. Put an acorn in a bottle of 
water and watch the beginning of an oak. Plant another 
in a box of moist sand and note how the growing end is 
protected from injury as it pushes upward. 

5. The age of the tree: the older pupils will know how 
to tell the age of a fallen tree by counting the rings of 
growth in the stump. They will be interested in learning 



l66 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

how to tell the age of a live tree. A branch forms buds at 
the end of the growing season, and in the spring it starts to 
grow by casting off the scales that protected these buds 
from the cold. So the twig length between rings of scars 
left by the scales marks a year's growth. It is easy to tell 
the approximate age of a tree by counting these rings from 
tip to base of twigs. The oldest branches are usually a 
year younger than the main stem. Every branch, large 
or small, must be at least a year younger than the stem 
that bears it. The youngest wood bears buds in winter; 
in summer all the leaves are borne directly upon shoots that 
grew from the winter buds. With these clews in mind, and 
experience gained by a few tests, judgment becomes very 
nearly accurate. It may be tested by cutting stems on 
young trees and counting pith rings. 

Do oak trees die of old age? There are oak trees in 
England that are more than a thousand years old. Find 
the average girth of oaks in your vicinity. The Round 
Table of King Arthur at Winchester is from a cross section 
of an oak eighteen feet in diameter. 

6. Ancient tales, legends, and superstitions of the oak are 
numerous. Find out about the prophetic oak of Dodona; 
the old Roman "Chaplet of leaves"; the "fairy pathways" 
in the base of old oaks in Germany ; Thor 's oak in the Hessian 
country; Oak Apple day; the Charter Oak; the Royal Oak. 

7. Uses of the Oak. 

(a) It produces wood of great strength and durabil- 

ity, valuable for building purposes. 

(b) Its bark is used for tanning and dyeing. 

(c) Its acorn is a food in certain parts of Asia. 

8. Pupils should bring in poems descriptive of the oak. 



NATURE STUDY 167 

Other trees which make interesting studies are the elm, 
maple, willow, hickory, ash, birch, linden, poplar, and the 
evergreens. Read "The Deacon's Masterpiece," by 
Holmes, and about the building of Hiawatha's canoe, by 
Longfellow. 

Certain products of the forest should be studied. Each 
topic may serve as the source of one or more lessons, or the 
subjects may be assigned individually. Lumber and fuel, 
fruits and nuts, medicinal and other useful barks, sap 
products and such products as coal and paper should be 
made interesting. 

From a study of the grace and beauty of the trees and 
the individual use of certain types, it is but a step to the 
large use and value of trees as a whole, and the subject of 
national forestry. Question the children to bring out the 
service of trees to man. The following points will need 
introduction; for their amplification, refer to any standard 
work on trees. 

1. Trees are important agents of nature for carrying the 
moisture of the earth into the air. 

2. Trees may be agents in producing rain. 

3. Trees are a considerable protection against floods and 
overflow. 

4. Trees are great makers of soil. 

5. Trees are invaluable in purifying and renovating the 
atmosphere. 

6. Trees are of immense importance in affording shelter 
to birds and beasts of the chase, and in the many produc- 
tions which they furnish. 

Since the day of the great Prankish king, Charlemagne, 
efforts have been made for the preservation of the forests. 



l6S THE TEACHEK, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

The head of this work in our country is the Bureau of 
Forestry under the Department of Agriculture at Wash- 
ington, D. C. Our national forests include over 150,000,- 
000 acres. They are divided into six districts, each in 
charge of a supervisor. Immediately under the supervisor 
each forest has a deputy supervisor, a forest assistant, besides 
a number of rangers and guards. The business of the 
forester is to destroy the animals which rob the farmers 
and stockmen (mountain lions, wolves, wildcats, bears, 
coyotes, and lynxes); to keep a constant and careful 
watch for fires; to sow seeds that the forests may be per- 
petuated; to govern the grazing within their boundaries; 
to cut out the "weeds" among the trees. 

The industry of forestry is second to that of agriculture 
in the number of people and amount of capital employed 
and in value of product. Much useful information may be 
had by applying for the free bulletins of the bureau. 

The Bureau of Wood Utilization also issues many bulle- 
tins of interest. The business of this bureau is to prevent 
wood waste. The bureau was founded in 1909, so its career 
of usefulness is only just beginning, but already it has been 
instrumental in saving many trees and thousands of dollars 
to workers in wood. 

Some Interesting Subjects for Composition: 

The Life of a Forest Ranger. 

Training for a Forester. (There are some twenty schools 
of forestry in the United States, of which the one at Cornell 
University is the pioneer.) 

What can be made from Sawdust. 

The Tale of a Balsam Pillow. 

Uses for Mill Waste. 



NATURE STUDY 169 

BIRDS 

Chic-chic-a-dee-dee ! saucy note 
Out of sound heart and merry throat, 
As if it said, "Good-day, good Sir! 
Fine afternoon, old passenger! 
Happy to meet you in these places, 
Where January brings few faces.^ 

Long live the winter birds! This is the thought that 
comes to us as we gaze from our window on a cheerless 
winter day. How bleak and bare that old tree would seem 
were it not for that dear little kinglet who jumps, and flits, 
and pipes his shrill little note! His merriment and good 
cheer soon attract a friend from a tall weed stalk in the 
garden — a bright little chap in a combination suit of red- 
dish drab and soiled brownish white, with a yellow head. 
He is a stranger, but withal there is something about him 
decidedly famihar, and when he suddenly calls out "Ker- 
chee, chee. chee!'' we clap our hands in delight. It is our 
dear little friend the goldfinch in his winter suit! 

Let us spread a banquet for the birds and see how many 
friends we can entice. A tree close to the schoolroom 
window is best. Suspend pieces of suet and meat bones 
in the branches here and there, add tiny baskets of seed 
and bran, and some apples thrust securely upon the twigs. 
A tree so provisioned throughout the winter months will 
provide scores of interesting bird studies. Besides the 
familiar sparrows, blue jays, hairy woodpeckers, gold- 
finches, occasional robins, and belated meadow larks will 
come dozens of other would-be friends. Some of these are 
resident birds. 

^ Ralph Waldo Emerson. 



l-JO THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AXD THE COMMUNITY 

Do you know the little titmouse, 

In his brownish-ashen coat. 
With his cap so black and jaunty. 

And a black patch on his throat? ^ 

Chickadee (Little Friend) is the common name for the 
titmouse. He is a cheery, fearless little bird, grateful for 
the smallest favors, and may readily be coaxed to eat from 
the hands of his friends. 

The nuthatches are interesting citizens. They delight 
in clinging head downwards, searching under the bark for 
eggs and unwary insects. Regular little acrobats they 
are, performing all sorts of laughable feats with ease and 
agility. A pair of these birds used to have great fun 
swinging on a clothes line on a friend's back porch. They 
would grasp the line firmly, and swang head dowmward 
until it would seem as though their brains must be in a 
whirl. All at once they would flit away to a tall poplar 
near by and run eagerly up the trunk, then come back again 
pell-mell and take another whirl on the line. They seldom 
touched the ground, and w^hen they did they squatted and 
sprawled about very awkwardly. The white-breasted nut- 
hatch is the best known. His cousin, the red-breasted nut- 
hatch, is smaller and seldom seen south of the most northerly 
states. Both are little slate-colored birds with black caps 
and necks. The w^hite-breasted nuthatch has a coarse, funny 
call: "Quank! qiiank! yank! hankT'' between mouthfuls. 

The red-headed woodpecker is very irregular in his 
goings and comings. He Hkes to winter in localities where 
beechnuts are plentiful. It is fun to watch him dig for 
buried stores. "His deliberate, dignified ways and his 

iM.A. B.KeUy. 



NATURE STUDY I7I 

bright uniform of red. white, and steel blue bespeak him 
as an officer of rank." There are those who contend that 
as the red-headed woodpecker represents our national 
colors, and as he is so much more famihar to all. he should 
be the national bird, instead of the eagle. 

South of parallel thirty-sLx. the redbird or cardinal 
grosbeak, the Carolina wren — "httle sweeter'n evers" 
one family dubs them, because of their continued twitter: 
''Sweeter'n ever, sweeter'n ever." — and an occasional 
mocking bird and cedar waxwing will call frequently for 
a taste of the bill of fare. 

Other guests at the banquet tree -will be made up of 
winter \-isitors — those birds which come to us from some 
northern country along late in the fall with the cold winds 
and the snow, and return to their home again in the spring. 
Among these are the snow buntings or snowflakes. the win- 
ter wrens, the shrike or butcher bird, the pine tinch or Kimet. 
the golden-crested kinglet, the juncos or snowbirds, the pine 
grosbeak, the American crossbill, and the bro-WTi creeper. 

The shrike is a strange character. Reckless, relentless, 
daring, bravest of the brave, he is the smallest bird of prey, 
being about the size of the robin. He is also classed among 
the song birds, and. while mating and nesting at home in 
Canadian and other northern regions, he pours forth from 
his "erstwhile reeking beak" a sweet, warbling love song 
that thrills his chance hearers with dehght. He is an 
ominous-looking bird, with a hawk's bill and sparrow's feet. 
His body is ash-colored, the ■wings and tail are black with 
white markings, and the forehead whitish with a narrow 
black stripe through the eye. His call resembles a creak- 
ing hinge. He has some ventriloquistic powers, and often 



172 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

imitates the cry of small birds, enticing them within easy 
range and then pouncing upon them. His mandibles are 
strong and cruel, and he makes short work of his poor little 
victim. If he does not happen to be hungry, he hangs the 
little body on a tree, or on a barbed-wire fence just as a 
butcher would hang up a beef, and leaves it. He seems 
seldom to go back to eat his victim, which may indicate 
that he often inflicts death just for the mere love of 
killing. 

With the exception of the winter wren and the humming 
bird, the kinglet is the smallest bird that we have, being 
about two inches smaller than the sparrow. He is a nerv- 
ous, energetic little chap, never still. Like the nuthatch, 
''head upward, head downward, it's all one to him." His 
love song is a beautiful lyric, out of all proportion to his 
size, and he frequently favors us with a few practice solos 
before flying north in April. 

Poems: 

"The Sparrows," by Celia Thaxter. 

"The Blue Jay," by Susan H. Swett. 

"Snowflakes," by Longfellow. 

"The White-breasted Nuthatch," by Edith Thomas. 

"The Legend of the Crossbill," by Longfellow. 

MINERALS 

Winter is a good time to make collections of minerals. 
Iron ore, copper, limestone, shale, sandstone, coal, marble, 
and granite are easily obtained by exchange and otherwise, 
and make interesting topics for geography and composition. 
Subjects should be assigned and compositions required that 
thoroughly cover the matter in hand. Use pictures liberally. 
Many post cards of interest may be obtained by exchange. 



CHAPTER XVTI 
WHAT TO DO WITH AGRICULTURE 

Agriculture in the schools of our land has come to stay. 
Nor is it to be considered a concession to farming or to the 
farmers; it is the direct outgrowth of the school's obligation 
to fit the pupils for higher citizenship — the realization 
that the school must do more than train the mind alone. 
Neither is it an experimental theory. For nearly twenty- 
five hundred years Persian schoolboys have received 
instruction in agriculture and horticulture, in gardens set 
apart for the purpose. Educational gardens have existed 
in central Europe since the Middle Ages. To-day there 
are more than eight thousand school gardens in Austria 
alone. To Mr. H. S. Clapp, of Boston, belongs the honor 
of starting the first American school garden (1890). This 
garden was originally intended for wild flowers, but it 
proved so helpful and interesting that a large vegetable 
garden was added. Massachusetts as a state has taken 
more or less initiative in school agriculture ; closely seconded 
by Ohio, until now all the states are interested, and there is 
scarcely one but has organized agricultural clubs of some 
sort, with a state leader in charge, the state College of 
Agriculture and the United States Department of Agricul- 
ture cooperating. 

But yet, in spite of the corn and pig clubs of the central 
states, the potato, poultry, and hay clubs of New Englantl, 
and the cotton .clubs of the South, agriculture in many 

173 



174 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

schools is not a success. Why? The teacher is often 
teaching it because compelled to do so by law, and not 
because of a vital interest in the subject or a determina- 
tion to press its importance home. She teaches just what 
the textbook says, perhaps performs some of the experi- 
ments suggested. As for a school garden, there is no time 
for such work, the curriculum is already overcrowded, and 
the salary does not compensate for the extra work. Often, 
too, there is a deep-rooted sentiment against "book 
farming." 

The wise teacher makes haste to correlate the study of 
agriculture with the problems of the neighborhood. For 
example, some such conversation as the following may serve 
as the opening wedge: "Boys, what is the matter with that 
field of wheat across the way?" 

"The land is worn out," is the quick reply. "Wheat 
has been grown there for three years, without manuring 
the field at all." 

'Do you mean to say that the land is absolutely worth- 
less, that it is too worn out to produce any kind of a 
crop?" 

"Oh, no indeed! It just won't grow wheat again with- 
out a rest. It might perhaps raise a pretty fair crop of 
corn." 

"You mean, then, that the wheat, being a great lover 
of nitrogen, has used up so much that there is not enough 
left to produce a wheat crop. If the owner had manured 
the place he would have restored the nitrogen, in the form 
of liquid ammonia. The same result could have been 
accomplished by turning under a green crop, such as 
clover, buckwheat, or rye." 



WHAT TO DO WITH AGRICULTURE I75 

"One of our neighbors tried that," observes a member 
of the class, conclusively. "He turned under a crop of 
buckwheat, and just about killed his land." 

"Oh, I know about that," volunteers another lad 
eagerly. "He did not turn under a green crop. The straw 
was nearly ripe ! Father said to do any good it should have 
been turned under just as the crop was coming into blossom ; 
for, up to that time, the chief growth was from the air, 
with very little drain upon the soil." 

"Mother says if our book on agriculture was any good, 
it ought to tell why we can't grow cabbage in our garden," 
complains a girl somewhat timidly. "It has been manured 
thoroughly, so it does not lack nitrogen. There is plenty 
of humus turned under always in the decayed vegetable 
matter. And it is not potash, for we always put on ashes 
to keep away bugs." 

"Very Hkely the soil needs lime," the teacher suggests 
quickly. "Cabbages love lime. Suppose you try work- 
ing in a little around each plant. Bring some of the soil 
to school" and we will test it for acidity." 

The way is now open for a study of soils, and it would be 
a very poor teacher indeed who could not soon have the 
class teeming with interest. Any good text on agriculture 
will furnish suggestions for developing a number of soil 
problems. The following are pertinent queries for in- 
vestigation : 

1. Why do soils become acid? 

2. What is an alkaline soil? How may such soil be 
improved? 

3. How does moisture hold soil together and move in it? 
How may soil moisture be saved? 



176 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

4. What is the nature of swamp soils? How can they 
be made productive? 

5. How does drainage benefit soil and crops? 

6. Look into the need for soil ventilation. Is it possible 
for soil to be too thoroughly ventilated? What is a soil 
mulch? 

Special Topics: 

1. Irrigation: how irrigation water is measured; three 
methods of irrigation; some famous irrigation plants; 
water as wealth in southern California. 

2. Talk about tiling, and about the reclamation of the 
swamp lands of the United States. 

3. Study instances of drainage by dikes, ditches, and 
jetties. Examples: the land reclaimed from the sea in 
Holland; the Mississippi jetties. 

4. Fertilizers: All of the large packing houses make 
fertilizers, composed of blood and bone and manure mix- 
tures, which are especially strong in nitrogen and phos- 
phorus. Secure samples of these. Examine samples of 
rock phosphates. Find out if any commercial fertilizers 
have been used in the neighborhood, and what was 
the result. Discuss the value of lime as a fertilizer. 
See Bulletins Nos. 14 i-i 59, Experiment Station, Wooster, 
Ohio. 

5. Secure samples of the four principal farm soils : 
sandy, clay, loam, and limestone. Compare them as to 
color and weight, and as to size of particles. 

ProUems: 

I. What is the best soil? The standard of perfection 
in soils is the ''crumb structure," a condition where the 
soil is crumbly and porous, but not too loose; firm but not 



WHAT TO DO WITH AGRICULTURE 1 77 

li.ird or consolidated; close-grained but not run together or 
adhesive. Examine some good garden soil. 

2. What is meant by texture and structure of soil? 
Soil structure depends upon the proportion or percentage of 
the different-sized grains of rock particles in the soil. 
Structure is their arrangement or grouping together, and 
the size and percentage of the empty spaces called "voids." 
Except in the driest sand or dust, soil particles are not in 
actual contact, but are separated by a thin film of water 
which holds the particles together in a mass. If greatly 
magnified, a bit of soil would look like bits of rock of all 
sizes and shapes, that had been moistened and then loosely 
piled together, lea\'ing abundant air spaces between the 
particles, the liquid films acting as an adhesive. 

3. WTiat are the functions of a soil? To act as a root- 
hold and home for the plant root; to serv^e as a storehouse, 
furnishing nourishment for the growth and maturity of the 
plant. 

4. How may soil be kept in good tilth? By rotation 
that kills" toxins, by drainage, by ventilation, and by 
stimulating bacterial action. 

5. WTiat elements are usually lacking in soils? 

6. How may soil be improved? 

References: 

Story of the Soil, by C. G. Hopkins. 
Soils, by C. W. Burkett. 

Farmers' Btilletins: 

No. 77, Liming of Soils; No. 257, Soil Fertility; No. 266, 
Management of Soils; No. 406, Soil Conservation; No. 187, 
Drainage of Farm Lands; No. 138, Irrigation in Field and 
Garden; No. 263, Practical Information for Beginners in 
Irrigation. 



178 THE TEACHER, TPIE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 
SOIL MAKING 

Formation of Earth Crust: Long ago the earth was a fiery 
mass of matter whirhng through space. It cooled grad- 
ually, and as it cooled it hardened into a sphere. Its 
surface was a crust of solid rock, and all about it were heavy 
acid vapors. Bare and lifeless as a great iron ball, it 
whirled through space. There was no foothold for the 
tiniest plant, no home for the humblest insect. 

The Action of Heat and Cold: While the earth was heated, 
the rocky substances expanded; as it cooled, the rock 
contracted, cracked, and broke, forming hills and valleys. 
The cold condensed the heavy acid vapors into rain. 
Continents rose, small at first, but increasing in size as the 
contraction went on; the waters flowed in streams through 
the narrow valleys, and settled in the deep depressions to 
form lakes, seas, and oceans. 

The Work of the Atmosphere: The air, gases, and vapors 
around the earth crumbled the rock surface and bore the 
rock dust from one place to another. 

The Work of Water, the Greatest of All Agents: In its 
various forms — vapor, rain, dew, frost, snow, and ice — 
water worked day and night, and is still working. Read 
"The Cataract of Lodore," by Robert Southey, and try 
to imagine its wonderful work as a sculptor. Visit a stream 
after a heavy rain. Why is the water so muddy? Where 
do the many pebbles in the bed of the stream come from? 
Which will be carried farther by the stream, sand or 
pebbles? 

The Breaking of Rocks to Make Soil: Note the crumbling 
rocks along the edge of a stream. What happens when 
water freezes in the crevices of rocks? Collect specimens 



WHAT TO DO WITH AGRICULTURE 1 79 

of quartz and feldspar. Quartz is the hardest of the com- 
mon minerals. It is very abundant and found in a variety 
of colors. Sand is powdered quartz. Feldspar has a 
pearly luster and ranges from white to light shades of gray, 
pink, red, brown, and green. It is feldspar that gives 
the color note to the granites. In most cases clay is derived 
from disintegrated feldspar. 

Examine rock fissures. They are filled with soil, roots, 
and water. Where did the soil come from? How do roots 
break rocks? 

Fungi, Lichens, and Mosses make very interesting 
studies. They are the simplest forms of vegetable life, 
yet they served a purpose by no means humble in the very 
beginning, when the earth was but a mass of crumbling 
rocks. They took hold determinedly here and there in 
crannies and crevices, drawing some food from the air and 
dissolving and absorbing other food from the rock. Their 
decay added to the rock dust ground out by wind and water, 
and in time this formed soil. A very poor and shallow soil 
it was, Hardly able to furnish a foothold for the simple 
plants that sought to grow upon it, but countless genera- 
tions of life and decay gradually enriched it, until finally 
the earth became a fair garden spot. 

Have the children examine fungi and lichens at work on 
a rock. Learn to know the commonest of the lichens — 
the reindeer lichen. The scarlet-crested lichen is very 
beautiful. Inside the scarlet tips the fruit is hidden, 
sealed up as with sealing wax. Now and then we may see 
one of these scarlet tips yawning in the center to let out the 
spores. On examination with a microscope the stems are 
found to be quite hollow, like macaroni. Remove one 



I So THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

of the red seals and see if the spores can be found anywhere 
in the dainty Httle chambers just inside. Lichens grow on 
the bark of hving trees, on rocks and decaying wood, and 
on the ground; they vary greatly in form and color. Some 
of them afford various colored dyes, these being obtained 
chiefly from rocks in the Azores and Canary Islands. 
Litmus is obtained from a lichen. A lichen of Asia is used 
for food. The so-called reindeer moss is a lichen. It grows 
in great profusion in the Arctic regions and is the chief food 
of the reindeer. 

Make a collection of mosses. See what can be learned 
about them with the aid of a microscope. Keep a plate of 
moist mosses and lichens in the schoolroom. One may find 
some species of haircap mosses all along the woodland 
paths, in the upland pastures, and even in open fields. 
They are usually large enough so that all their parts can 
be seen by the naked eye. The treasure boxes of these 
mosses are the daintiest imaginable. Each stands firmly 
on a long stem and is securely fitted with a lid or cap, and 
frequently veiled with hair. After the cap and veil come 
off, as they always do when the time comes for the spores 
to be scattered, one may see a thin membrane stretching 
over the top of the box, much after the fashion of a piece 
of oiled paper on the top of a glass of jelly. About sixty 
little teeth hold the membrane securely in place in damp 
weather. But when the weather is dry enough for the little 
spores to be trusted out in the big world, the teeth draw 
back sufficiently to make a ring of holes all around the box. 
Out of these tiny spaces the spores manage somehow to 
escape. In certain kinds of mosses the teeth turn back 
in dry seasons, forming little daisy-like florets. 



WHAT TO DO WITH AGRICULTURE iSl 

'I'he fungi like moisture They grow from spawn which 
is supposed to be floating in the atmosphere in incalculable 
numbers. Some diseases are caused by fungi, and in the 
form of mold, mildew, smut, dry rot, rust, blight, and scab, 
they are dreaded by farmers and orchardists. The great 
shelf fungi that grow out like brackets on the trunks of trees 
are signs that the tree is dying, for most fungi feed on dead 
tissues. The fungi which we see on the ground are grow- 
ing on moldering roots or on buried wood. Mushrooms and 
toadstools are fungi. But they are not the whole plants; 
they are the fruiting bodies which bear the spores. (Have 
children study one of these interesting plants.) Some fungi 
are valuable in medicine. Occasionally small fungi are 
seen growing overhead on living twigs and leaves. These 
are seldom numerous enough to work much harm, though 
frequently they stunt the growth of their hapless host. 

The Work of Earthworms: In the great economy of nature 
all creatures, however lowly, have a work to perform. Lead 
children to discover the value of earthworms and the com- 
mon garden slugs or snails. In what kind of soil do they 
work? What do they eat? Imprison a few earthworms 
in a glass jar containing moist dirt covered with dead leaves. 
What do they do with the leaves? Can the worms see, 
hear, and smell? Try holding a lighted candle close to 
the head of a worm. See it draw back! It cannot really 
see for it has no eyes, but the head is in some way able to 
distinguish light and darkness. It is not disturbed by 
any manner of din about the jar. Worms cannot hear at 
all, but they have a very delicate sense of touch. Try 
hiding a piece of cheese or some savory tidbit among the 
leaves and see if the worms find it. 



l82 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

Worms breathe through their skins, which need to be 
kept moist. They eat their way through the soil, consum- 
ing dead leaves and waste animal matter which they con- 
vert into rich mold. Their burrows penetrate the ground 
to a depth of from three to eight feet, letting in the rain 
and air and so benefiting the roots of plants. This work 
of the worms in loosening and enriching the soil is of incal- 
culable value to the farmer. 

LEGUMES 

The legumes are invaluable in building up the soil, 
and they should form the basis of a number of interesting 
lessons. Have pupils make a Hst of the legumes grown in 
their locaHty. Examine the roots of red clover, cowpeas, 
alfalfa, and beans. Note how the tubercles vary on the 
different plants. Explain that tubercles are thought to 
be rootlets changed in form by countless bacteria. The 
decay of the tubercles leaves nitrogen in the soil. An 
average crop of peas or clover is said to add about one 
hundred and fifty pounds of nitrogen to each acre of 
soil. Compute the value of this, at the usual cost 
of sixteen cents per pound for nitrogen in commercial 
form. 

Legumes are often spoken of as "lime plants," be- 
cause they use so much of that element. Will the legumes 
grow in any soil? Discuss the kind of seed bed neces- 
sary. How may bacteria be supplied? Procure two 
flowerpots; in one prepare a seed bed of ordinary field 
soil; in the other put soil from a field where clover has 
been grown. Sow crimson clover in each, and watch de- 
velopments. 



WHAT TO DO WITH AGRICULTUKE I83 

References, Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 278, Leguminous Crops for Green Manuring. 

No. 315, Progress in Legume Inoculation. 

No. 318, Cow peas. 

No. 339, Alfalfa. 
Problems: 

1. What legumes are classed as fodder plants? 

2. What legumes are used chiefly for pasturage and hay? 

3. What one of the legumes is cultivated chiefly for its nuts? 

4. Name the legumes which produce seeds of a high food 

value. 

5. Show how the legumes improve the soil. 

6. What legumes are specially adapted to a thin, sandy soil? 

GRASSES 

Peeping, peeping, here and there, 
In lawns and meadows everywhere; 
Coming up to find the spring, 
And hear the robin redbreast sing, 
Creeping under children's feet, 
Glancing at the violets sweet. 
Growing into tiny bowers. 
For the dainty meadow's flowers. — 
We are small, but think a minute 
Of a world with no grass in it.^ 

The grasses are by far the most useful and important 
plant family. Everywhere on meadow, hill, and valley is 
spread their soft, beautiful green, ranging from the low 
bunch grasses of our lawns and orchards to the great bam- 
boos of the tropics. Our cereals — wheat, oats, rye, 
barley, and Indian corn - — are simply cultivated grasses. 
In the ordinary use of the term, however, grass includes 
only those plants which are used for pasture and hay. 
1 Song of the Grass Blades. 



lS4 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

Have pupils make a collection of grasses for the school- 
room. Classify them into grasses of the meadow, the 
hillside, the marsh, and the woodland. Learn to know 
the most common grasses. (Ask your state experiment 
station and the Department of Agriculture for aid along 
this line.) 

Problems, i. Do the grasses bear flowers and seed? Find 
the tiny stamens in the chaff-like scales. Where are the 
pistils? How are the grasses fertilized? Children find 
specimens of the little bright blue-eyed, yellow, and white 
"flowering grasses," which are really not grasses at all, but 
members of the iris family and classed among the wUd flowers. 

2. Make a study of one of the common grasses. Timothy 
is probably within reach of all. Note the small bulbous root, 
the flowers growing on a long spike. Compare with sweet ver- 
nal grass. In the latter the internode is very long, the sheaf 
and leaf blade very short; it is especially well-adapted to wind 
fertilization. Why? Timothy is sometimes called herd's 
grass. It was brought to this country from Europe years 
ago by a man named Timothy Hanson. 

3. What are the grasses most used for hay in your locality? 

4. What members of the grass family are best adapted to 
pastures? Those that spread by means of rootstocks or 
underground stems. Why? Kentucky blue grass, buffalo 
grass, and Bermuda grass are the best examples. Many 
farmers prefer to sow pastures and hayfields with a mixture 
of grasses, because each plant has different feeding habits and 
requirements and so mixtures exhaust the soil less than one 
variety. A favorite mixture is timothy, orchard grass, 
redtop and clover. 

CORN 

Upon a hundred thousand plains 
Its banners rustle in the breeze, 

O'er all the nation's wide domains. 
From coast to coast betwixt the seas. 



WHAT TO DO WITH AGRICULTURE 1 85 

It storms the hills and fills the vales, 

It marches like an army grand, 
The continent its presence hails, 

Its beauty brightens all the land.^ 

Study the roots and prop roots, and how they branch to 
support the stalk; their fiber and toughness. 

Study the stem. How is it made up? Are the joints 
alike? Note the prominent lower nodes, the pithy stalk, 
the average height. 

How are the leaves arranged on the stem? What is 
their use to the plant? How do the leaves look on a dry, 
hot morning? Discuss their value as food for stock. 

Study the flowers: Note the two kinds on each stalk, 
the stamens in the stiff, spreading tassel; the pistils in the 
bunches of silk where the new ear is to be. How is corn 
fertilized? . Discuss the value, if any, of cross-fertilization. 
Examine an ear of corn in the making. What is the use 
of the silk? Note that there is a silk for each kernel. How 
does the pollen pass down these little silken tubes? Note 
the arrangement of kernels on the cob. Examine several 
ears. Count the rows. Do ears of the same variety of 
corn have the same number of rows? 

Discuss the history of corn. It was a native of tropical 
America. Early explorers found it cultivated by the 
Indians. Columbus is said to have carried it to Spain. 
The United States produces three fourths of the world's 
corn crop — over two and a half billion bushels of grain. 

Cultivation: 

I. Why does corn need deep plowing before planting? 
Why should the cultivation of the crop be shallow? 

' Celia Thaxter: "Maize for the Nation's Emblem." 



1 86 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

2. What is the average yield per acre in your locality? Are 
fertilizers used? How may the yield per acre be increased? 

3. Will corn produce a crop on poor ground? 

4. What elements does corn remove from the soil? 
Humus and nitrogen. 

5. What is the proper crop rotation? Corn should follow 
and precede crops which supply the elements it requires. 
It is a good plan to sow rye or crimson clover in the fall on 
land to be planted in corn the following season, and plow 
under the rye crop or clover stubble. 

6. What climatic conditions are best suited to growing 
corn? Where is the corn belt of the United States? Name 
the two leading "corn" states. 

7. What is meant by 'listing' corn? Name sections of 
the country where this method of cultivation is practiced. 

8. Name diseases of the corn plant in your section. 

9. What insects are injurious to corn? 

Harvesting: Many farmers desire to save both the forage 
and the grain; how can this be done most profitably? Dis- 
cuss the value of shredded fodder. How is corn cared for 
in your community? Discuss selection and care of seed 
corn. The right kind of corncribs. Machinery used in 
harvesting corn — corn binders, corn shredders and buskers, 
corn shellers, etc. Collect samples of as many different 
kinds of corn as possible. What varieties are the most prof- 
itable to grow in your community? Why? 

Uses of Corn: i. The grain constitutes about one half 
the value of the corn crop. The by-products are starch 
and corn meal. 

2. The leaves and husks besides their use for fodder are 
used in packing fruits; in stuffing mattresses, saddles, and 



WHAT TO DO WITH AGRICULTURE 187 

similar products; in the manufacture of paper, baskets, 
rugs, and mats. 

3. The stalks supply much of the nourishment of the 
corn plant. They are a valuable source of commercial 
alcohol. Stalks from fifty bushels of grain will produce 
about one hundred gallons of alcohol. The stalk fiber is 
used in making paper and pasteboard. Pith furnishes 
material for linoleum and the packing for gunboats. 

References: Corn booklets issued by the various farm imple- 
ment companies, and the following Farmers' Bulletins: 
No. 414, Corn Cultivation. 
No. 229, The Production of Good Seed Corn. 
No. 298, Food Value of Corn and Corn Products. 
No. 303, Corn-Harvesting Machinery. 
No. 313, Harvesting and Storing Corn. 

WHEAT 

Study the plant; its leaves or blades and the "head," 
made up of many flowers. Each flower has three stamens 
and one "pistil, inclosed in a cover, or chaff, so that the seed 
is self-fertilized. 

Discuss the varieties and range. How was beardless 
seed produced? How may new varieties be secured? 
What is meant by hand pollination? How may seed be 
improved? 

Cultivation: i. Wheat requires a thoroughly prepared 
seed bed. Why? 

(a) It is a sown crop, hence all cultivation must be 

given before seeding. 

(b) It is a weak-feeding plant, and so needs a soil 

fertile and mellow. 



1 88 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

(c) It needs a firm seed bed to give the root a firm hold 
and secure capillarity. 

2. How may this bed best be secured? Which is better, 
to sow the seed by hand or to drill it? 

3. What soil elements are required by wheat? (Nitro- 
gen, potash, and phosphoric acid.) How may these ele- 
ments be supplied? Is lime beneficial? 

4. What is the average wheat yield per acre? How may 
it be increased? 

5. What is the place of wheat in rotation? Wheat 
should be preceded by clover, cowpeas, or other nitrogen- 
collecting, deep-rooted crop; and followed again by some 
one of the legumes. 

6. What insects are injurious to wheat? See Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 132, Insect Enemies of Growing Wheat. 

7. Name diseases which attack the wheat plant. 
Subjects for Composition. 

A Visit to a Big Wheat Farm. 

In a Flour Mill. 

From Seed to Loaf. 

A Wheat Farm in Canada. 

My Bumper Wheat Crop. 

Other cereals may be studied by outline, if desired. Have 
each pupil prepare a map of his home farm. Indicate the 
crop that was last grown in each field. It possible, mark 
the crop which will be planted in each next season. Learn 
to grade grain. Rules and instructions for this work may 
be obtained from the Railroad and Warehouse Commission, 
Chicago. Discuss treatment of seed wheat and other 
grains to prevent rust. 

References: Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 67, 324, and 138. 



WHAT TO DO WITH AGRICULTURE 189 

SUGAR-PRODUCING PLANTS 

The two great sugar-producing crops in the United 
States are sugar beets in the North and sugar cane in the 
South. Sorghum is grown in latitudes too cool and too dry 
for sugar cane. It is a member of the grass family whose 
use is well-known. 

Sugar Beets: Topics for Study. 

1. Where is the home of the sugar beet industry? 

2. When was the industry introduced into our country? 

3. What soil is best suited for its cultivation? 

4. What is the amount of sugar per root? (i8 to 25 per 
cent.) 

5. How to increase the sugar-producing quality: test 
beets, and plant for seed those roots containing the greatest 
amount of sugar. 

6. Cultivation: What method and what machinery are 
used? 

7. Harvesting the crop. 

8. Yield per acre — an acre of beets testing 24 per cent 
sugar would yield about 42,000 pounds of sugar. 

9. How beet sugar is made. 

10. Effect of beets on soil. Sugar, like cotton, is largely 
formed from the carbon of the air, so that if the leaves and 
pulp are returned to the fields or used for stock feed and the 
manure put on the land, the crop removes little fertility 
from the soil. 

Sugar Cane: Topics for Study. 

1. Its membership in the grass family. 

2. Where is it cultivated? 

3. The "seed." Sugar cane is reproduced by cuttings, 
which are pieces of stalk containing "eyes" or buds. How 



igo THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

are these planted? How many crops are grown from one 
planting? 

4. Cultivation: What kind of soil and seed bed are 
necessary? What machinery is used? 

5. How is the crop harvested? 

6. Products: sirup, sugar, and molasses. 
Subjects for Composition. 

Making Sorghum Sirup. 
A Taffy Pull at Aunt Mary's. 
A Visit to a Sugar Beet Factory. 
Shall We Raise Sugar Beets? 
In the Cane Fields of the South. 
How Cane Sugar is Made. 

THE ORCHARD 

In the agricultural sections of our country, the orchards 
are often sadly neglected. (Read and discuss Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 154, The Home Fruit Garden, and Bulletin No. 
87, Orchards, Cover Crops and Cultivation.) 

Learn how to plant an apple tree. Why should we 
trim the roots? Why the top? Is a peach tree pre- 
pared for planting in the same manner as an apple 
tree? 

If you plant the seed from a big red apple, will you 
get a seedling which will in time produce an apple of the 
same kind and quality? Why do fruit seeds usually 
not "come true"? The little seedling must be budded 
and grafted from the parent stock. How this is done 
is most interesting. Perhaps some good orchardist may be 
induced to give the pupils an object lesson covering these 
points. 



WIIAT TO DO WITH AGRICULTURE IQI 

Special Topics: 

Fundamental principles of pruning. 
Object of spraying.^ 
Making over fruit trees.^ 

Special Spring Work 
Experiments with Plants, i . Layering, cutting, budding 
and grafting. 

(a) Raise a strawberry plant and a grapevine by 
layering. 

(b) Raise a potato and a geranium from cuttings. 
How many " eyes" should a potato cutting have? Explain 
why some leaves should be removed from the geranium 
cutting. 

(c) Bud and graft some seedling apple trees, using 
buds and scions from a good variety, and following carefully 
the instructions of your text, or of some one who is well 
versed in the work. 

2. Make a study of stems. 
I. Classes: 

1. Climbing and twining stems. 

(a) Tendril climbers such as pea, morning-glory. 

(b) Twiners such as hop, bean. 

2. Underground stems. 

(a) Rootstocks. 

(b) Tubers. 

(c) Bulbs. 

^ Apply to your state experiment station for bulletins on spraying; also 
to the chemical companies manufacturing spray material. Farmers' Bulletin 
283, Spraying for Apple Diseases. 

- Read the chapter under this head in Among Green Trees, Rogers. If 
possible, cite instances where work of this kind has been done. 



192 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

3, Condensed stems. The best examples of these are found 
in desert regions where the plants must necessarily 
expose as little surface as possible to the excessive heat of 
the sun and the dry atmosphere. See the melon cactus, 
with its odd, turnip-shaped stem. 

4, Leaf-like stems. Certain plants have stems which look 
like leaves. The scales on asparagus shoots in spring are 
reduced leaves; but the hair-like structures which cover the 
branches of the plant later are really tiny branches which 
act as leaves. The leaf-like branches of the smilax seem 
to be delicate leaves, but on investigation they prove to 
be flattened branches, each springing as a small scale from 
the axil of the true leaf. The fleshy "leaves" of some 
varieties of cactus are really flattened stems. 

5, Stemless plants such as white clover, dandelion, knot 
grass. Are they really true to name? Show how these 
plants find safety in hugging the ground. 

II. Modifiability of the Stem. The stems (trunks) of 
the tallest trees often reach more than a hundred feet; 
while those of the "stemless" plants are cut down to a 
fraction of an inch in length. Again the stems may take 
on root-like forms, as in many grasses or sedges, or become 
thickened by underground deposits of plant food, as in the 
potato and the iris. Condensed forms of stem may exist 
above ground, or, on the other hand, branches may be flat 
and thin enough to resemble leaves. 

III. Structure of the Stem. 

1. Examine sections from a year-old apple twig. Note 
the amount of bark, wood, and pith. 

2. Examine cherry sections of the same age. Note the 
corky layer of the bark, more distinct in the cherry than in 



^\TIAT TO DO WITH AGRICULTURE I93 

the apple. Note the rough, oval-shaped spots on the 
outer surface of the twig — these are the lenticels, through 
which the air penetrates to the interior of the branches. 
Notice the green layer or cambium in the cherry twig. 
Compare with that of the apple. 

3. Examine cut-off ends of oak, hickory, and other woods. 
Note the holes which mark the division between successive 
rings. These holes indicate cross sections of the tubes 
which served to carry air and water through the stem. 
Examine sections of grapevine several years old. Note 
the large size of the ducts. In the billets of wood examined, 
note the difference in color between the heartwood and 
the sapwood. Note the narrow lines running in very young 
stems from pith to bark, in older wood extending only a 
little of the way from the center. These are the medullary 
rays which served as channels for the liquid plant food. 

4. Have pupils make a sketch of a cross section of five- 
year-old apple, noting: the corky bark layer, the cam- 
bium, the masses of bast fibers, the medullary rays, the 
pith. Have them state the use of each part noted. 

5. Cut across a stalk of growing corn. Examine the 
cut section. Note the firm rind, the outer mass of pith 
composing the main bulk of the stem, the groups of wood 
cells, bast cells, and vessels. 

6. Compare the apple and the corn as to stem structure. 

7. Examine various green-stemmed plants. Annual 
plants generally and the very young shoots of shrubs and 
trees have abundant breathing pores in the epidermis, 
which serve for the admission of air and the escape of 
moisture, while the green layer of the bark answers the same 
purpose that is served by the green pulp of the leaf. 



IQ4 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

Studies of roots, leaves, and flowers may be pursued, if 
time admits, following the suggestions of any good text on 
botany. Try these experiments with flowers: 

1. To sJiow cross-fertilization. Before the buds of apple 
or pear open, pull out the stamens with a pair of tweezers, 
injuring the bud as little as possible and leaving the blossom 
on the tree. Inclose the flower in a paper bag and ex- 
amine it from day to day.^ When the stigma is sticky or 
rough, carry pollen on a brush or pencil point from flowers 
of closely related species, and put it on the stigma of the 
inclosed blossom. Again inclose the flower in the bag to 
keep other pollen from getting on the stigma. After a few 
days the bag can be removed without fear of other pollen's 
fertilizing the stigma. Mark the stem so that the fruit 
resulting from crossing may be recognized. A number of 
flowers should be so treated, for some may fail to amount 
to anything. 

2. To show protection of embryos. Examine the fruits 
of the pea, walnut, mustard, clover, and the hazelnut. 
Notice the tendency toward roundness. Examine seeds 
of rye, oats, barley, wheat, apple, pear, lemon, and raisin. 
Here you find a tendency toward the cylindrical, but 
in both cases there is an avoidance of corners and edges. 
In an examination of an almond, a Brazil nut, buckwheat, 
peach, plum seeds, we find sharp edges and corners, but an 
accompanying hardness that fully protects the embryos. 
Do seeds in general show a tendency toward dark colors? 
Secure caraway, nutmeg, pepper, aniseed. Of what 

' Care should be taken to have each blossom so treated separately in- 
closed. If more than one blossom is inclosed, all should have the stamens 
removed to prevent flowers from pollinating each other. 



WHAT TO DO WITH AGRICULTURE I95 

benefit are their tastes and odors to their inclosed embryos? 
Can you find seeds which have no protection for their 
embryos? 

TESTING SEED 

I. Miscellaneous Experiments: 

1. Make a seed tester of two pieces of wet blotting paper. 
Sow seed between sheets. Keep damp and at a tempera- 
ture of 70° to 80° Fahrenheit. Note the time it takes for 
germination, and the per cent of fertility. 

2. Dip pieces of damp flannel in boiling water in order 
to destroy any mold spores that may be on them. Lay one 
piece on a plate. Sow the seed to be tested on it, and cover 
it with the other piece of flannel and another plate. Keep 
moist and warm, and note the results as before. 

3. Plant morning-glory seeds in a box of fine soil and 
press the soil down firmly. Plant the same number of 
seeds in a box of loose soil. Compare the results. What 
rules may be deduced from the experiment? 

4. Weigh some corn and beans. Put them in water for 
twenty-four hours and again weigh them. What is the 
difference in weight? What idea does this give as to the 
moisture required in the germination of different seeds? 

5. Insert glass sides in a narrow wooden box. Fill the 
box with moist soil, planting corn and beans close against 
the glass at different depths as the earth is put in. Cover 
the box and keep in a warm place. Note the progress of 
germination daily. Which plants make their way to the 
surface from the greater depth, corn or beans, and why? 

II. Experiments with Corn: 

I. Study the sand tray, and examine various tjrpes of 
corn tester. Have corn tested in at least one of each. 



196 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

(This had best be done at home, unless the schoolhouse is 
heated at night.) 

2. Discuss reasons for testing corn. Make a record of 
the corn tested, noting number of seed, date planted, date 
sprouted, per cent of fertility. What is the value of 
grading tested corn? 

III. Prove Rules for Germination: (a) Seeds require a 
certain amount of moisture, heat, and air. (b) Seeds grow 
best when the soil around them is made fine and compact. 

Mention seeds that require considerable warmth in 
germination; seeds that do not need much heat. Explain 
how plants of the same family var3^ mentioning several 
varieties of corn and wheat. 

THE SCHOOL GARDEN 

What to do with school gardens is a problem each teacher 
must solve. In the case of older pupils it is no doubt best 
in most instances to give school credits for work done at 
home. This should include credit for work done during 
the summer months, and should count in the school 
promotions. Here is a suggested score card: 

1. Effort 20 per cent. 

2. Care of garden and tools 35 per cent. 

3. Record of work done 10 per cent. 

4. Value of produce 35 per cent. 
Interest in the work may be promoted: 

I. By having a judge well- versed in garden work, who 
will visit the gardens from time to time to score the work 
and offer suggestions. This may well be some patron of 
the school, a grandfather perhaps, who is willing to give his 
services for the public good. 



WTIAT TO DO WITH AGRICULTURE I97 

2. By offering various prizes, such as: for the best 
variety of vegetables, for instance the best bushel of potatoes, 
the finest collection of novelties, the best exhibit of melons, 
the biggest pumpkin. 

3. By keeping in mind the school exhibit which each 
district should endeavor to display at the county fair. 

4. By working for a Harvest Home to be held at the 
schoolhouse some time in October — a regular gala day 
in which school exhibits, picnic dinner, sports of all kinds, 
and general joy and good cheer compete for first place. 

5. By displaying seasonable garden produce — fruit, 
flowers, and vegetables — in the schoolroom. These should 
be fresh each morning. Judges may be appointed for the 
day or the week to award ribbons and honorary cards. 
Produce may be used by the cooking class, or a garden 
exchange may be maintained. 

If school gardens are attempted, do not allow the young 
enthusiasts to undertake too much. Remember even a 
pigmy garden assumes vast proportions when the sun looks 
down with ever-increasing warmth and nothing seems quite 
so alluring as a soft bed of grass in the shade. Uniform 
beds, about five feet in width and varying in length accord- 
ing to the age of the gardeners — seven or eight feet for 
the smaller children and eighteen or twenty feet for the 
older pupils — are best. Allow a path of two feet between 
the beds, and outline the' whole with a border of flowers. 
Each child should be allowed to choose four vegetables for 
his garden, and he should be expected to care for his part 
of the flower border. In general it is best to group varieties 
so that vegetables which mature at nearly the same time 
shall be near each other. These may then be cleared 



igS THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND 'JllE COMMUNITY 

away and other vegetables planted in their place without 
giving the garden a ragged appearance. If possible the 
plot should be manured and plowed in the fall before the 
ground freezes, so that Nature may do her part in making 
the soil friable. 

What problems the small gardens present! Intricacies of 
practical measurement, seed fertility, germination, soil 
conditions, the plant elements needed, the mysteries of 
leaf, bud, and flower — offer materials for scores of arith- 
metic, language, and nature study lessons, to say nothing 
of encouraging industry, self-reliance, and neighborly 
rivalry. 

Many rural school grounds are not large enough to make 
gardening practicable. But even in the smallest grounds 
there are the waste places along the borders, the little plots 
at the sides of the stoop and along the sunny side of the 
house. Consider these. Take the pupils into your con- 
fidence and spend some happy hours discussing and 
planning. 

ARBOR DAY 

Make Arbor Day the culmination of your efforts. Plan 
a program and a picnic dinner and invite the parents. 
Decide just where you want trees, shrubs, and flower beds, 
and put a large diagram of the plan on the board. Don't 
scatter the ornamentations about promiscuously. Now is 
the time to inculcate the principles of landscape gardening. 
A tree or two about the grounds, if shade is needed, and 
possibly a flowering shrub, or better a climbing rose or 
honeysuckle to screen a bench or train on a trellis sheltering 
the well; for the rest keep to the borders and the plot 
suggested beside the porch and along the side of the 



WHAT TO DO WITH AGRICULTURE 1 99 

schoolhouse. If there are no screens in front of the toilets, 
suggest rustic trellises to be covered with hop- vines, honey- 
sucklCj cinnamon vines, or morning-glories. 

Make a list of the wants and ask the children to solicit 
at home. The following are suggestive: tools, nails, rustic 
poles, fertilizer, shrubs, bulbs, cuttings, seeds. Limit the 
number of trees and shrubs. Vistas of graceful shade, 
grass, and a few bright flowers are more delightful than a 
wilderness of profusion. 

For the "stoop" border try nasturtiums and pansies. 
In the plot connecting this border and the garden at the 
side, plant petunias, cuttings of scarlet geranium, and 
feverfew or alyssum. Against the house plant a row of 
dahlia bulbs, next set a row of salvia plants, then a row 
of geraniums, and finish with a border of clove pinks and 
mignonette. If the schoolhouse fortunately boasts a porch 
instead of the usual stoop, plant a Dorothy Perkins or other 
climbing rose, and induce the men to put up a rustic railing, 
whereon a fern or two, a porch box, or a few potted plants 
may be placed. Here, as elsewhere, avoid the appearance 
of crowding. Simplicity is the keynote of beauty and ele- 
gance in landscape gardening. 

Along the boundaries, where flowers are used, put tall 
plants like asters, chrysanthemums, and cosmos, in the 
background. Verbenas, candytuft, and coleus make nice 
edges. Do not neglect the old-fashioned flowers — zin- 
nias, marigolds, snapdragon, and sweet William — they 
will bloom and flourish under circumstances adverse to the 
more cultured beauties. 

A rose garden does not require much space, and it will 
be an increasing pleasure as the years go by. Plan to have 



200 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

a little plot, say twelve by fifteen feet, at one side of the 
grounds. This is large enough to accommodate twenty 
bushes, placed three feet apart. Spade up the ground 
thoroughly, and see that it is plentifully supplied with 
sand and fine leaf mold. Put out <tiothing but monthly 
roses. If you are not fortunate enough to have well-rooted 
bushes donated, put out strong, vigorous cuttings. Clip 
all but the tiniest leaves and cover the plant with a glass 
until it is rooted. Roses started in May will bloom in the 
fall. Aim to begin with a variety of colors. Let the 
children try their hand at producing hybrids. 

Special Autumn Work 

1. Reasons for fall plowing. 

(a). Makes the soil more friable. How? 
(b). Destroys many harmful insects which winter 
in the ground. 

2. Protection of plowed land. 

In warm climates and on light soils, fall plowed land 
needs protection against washing and leaching rains. 
How may this be secured? What are the best cover 
crops? 

3. When to work and why. 

COVER CROPS 

More attention should be given to cover crops every- 
where. They save and increase plant food, supply humus, 
and prevent washing and leaching which cause greater loss 
of fertility than does cropping. They also keep the land 
from becoming infested with weeds, and give valuable graz- 
ing to stock at a time when it is most needed. 



WHAT TO DO WITH AGRICULTURE 20I 

Problems: i. Show how such crops are net gain. 

2. What kinds of land should never be left bare in 
winter? 

3. Discuss the kinds of cover crops — rye, oats, wheat, 
vetch, crimson and bur clover, laying special stress on those 
adapted to the locality. 

4. Find out about the ''pure culture" frequently supplied 
by the state agricultural departments. If possible, ex- 
periment with some of it according to directions. 

WEEDS 

One authority defines weeds as "plants out of place," 
those that persist in growing where they are not wanted. 
Read what your textbook has to say about weeds. Get 
the following Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 28, Weeds and How to Kill Them. 

No. 86, Thirty Poisonous Plants. 

No. 188, Weeds Used in Medicine. 

Make a collection of weeds and weed seeds. ' Two-ounce 
bottles with screw tops are best for the latter. Classify 
them as to common name; kind — annual, biennial, or 
perennial; their use or harm to man. Note the great 
amount of seed produced by a single plant — often as 
many as a hundred thousand seeds in one season. Study 
their ways of dispersing seed. Weeds are the "tramps of 
the vegetable world," and like the up-to-date tramps in 
other walks of life, they travel with all the conveniences of 
the age — by rail and boat, by motor cycle, automobile, and 
aeroplane. Their seeds are often carried from one land 
to another mixed in other seed, such as grass or grain, in 
hay, in fleeces and hides, and other traded commodities. 



202 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

Make a list of native and foreign weeds. Nearly all our 
most troublesome weeds have been imported from Europe. 
Special Topics: 

Harm done by weeds. 

Weed control. 

Weed extermination. 

Birds that do service as weed destroyers. 

INSECTS 

No more useful work can be done in the schools than to 
familiarize the children with entomology. Apply to the 
Bureau of Entomology for free bulletins. Get a good 
reference book on insects. Consider the relation existing 
between the insect world and the plant world; between 
the insect world and the bird world. 

Problems: 

1. Compare a grasshopper, a butterfly, a beetle, and 
a fly. In what are they alike, in what unlike? 

2. Collect eggs from the cabbage butterfly, together with 
the foliage they are found upon; watch the transformation 
from egg to imago. 

3. Note the movements of the caterpiUar's jaw from side 
to side when he eats. How hungry he is! He feeds nearly 
all the time. Small wonder his skin soon becomes so tight 
that it bursts, and he is obliged to cast it off! How many 
times does he molt before he is full-grown? Watch him 
spinning the silken thread which slowly winds him into 
a pupa or chrysalis. 

4. A chrysalis formed in August or September will be a 
butterfly in a few weeks. Strive to see the little creature 
emerge. 



WHAT TO DO WITH AGRICULTURE 203 

5. Study the living butterfly: Note its long, slender 
tongue, coiled like a spring when not in use. Provide a 
few drops of sugar and water; watch the tongue uncoil. 
How admirably it is built to sip nectar from even the 
narrowest, longest flower tube! Observe that it is the over- 
lapping scales which give the wings their color. 

Have the pupils read Wordsworth's poem, "To a 
Butterfly." Have them write, "The Life History of a 
Butterfly." 

Larvae: It is as larvae that insects are most injurious. 
And it is the worms and caterpillars from the larvae of 
moths that create the most havoc. Learn to know the 
codling moth, the gypsy moth, the common clothes moth, 
the hawk or humming-bird moth, and their larvae. Millions 
of dollars are spent every year to protect fruit trees against 
the codling moth. From Spain there has been imported 
a wasp-like fly, called the Tachina fly, which is a deadly 
enemy of the codling moth. This fly does not kill the 
moth. It lays its eggs on the moth's larvae, and the little 
maggots which soon hatch proceed at once to devour the 
larvae. 

How to Distinguish Butterflies and Moths: 

1. Butterflies fly by day; moths', as a rule, fly only by 
night. 

2. Butterflies have little swollen, club-like knobs at the 
ends of the antennae: moths do not. (Some moths have 
feathered antennae ; others have antennae in the form of a 
prism, with a spur at the end.) 

3. Butterflies when at rest fold their wings together in a 
vertical position above their bodies; moths spread their 
wings horizontally. 



204 TILE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND TIH'. COMMUNITY 

Topics for special Study: Beetles,^ Bees, Bumblebees, 
Wasps and Hornets, the Garden Spider and his cousin 
Daddy Longlegs, the Common Red Ant, the Agricultural 
Ant, the Dragon Fly, the Lightning Bug, the Silkworm. 

Insect Collections add much to the value of a school 
exhibit. The making of such collections is hardly a task 
for miscellaneous effort, as special care and aptitude are 
essential. There may be two or three pupils, however, who 
would delight in doing the work. Very little apparatus is 
necessary: a cyanide jar for the quick killing of insects, 
a butterfly net, a cork-lined collecting box, a breeding jar, 
mounting boards, insect pins, a few small cards, and some 
sheets of cardboard. Glass cases are necessary to protect 
the specimens from the dust. Often an old show case may 
be obtained at small cost and made to serve the purpose 
admirably. 

I. To make the cyanide jar: Take a good, wide-mouthed 
fruit jar, with a tight-fitting lid, to the druggist. Have him 
put in four or five pieces of cyanide of potassium, the size 
of walnuts, and cover them with a layer of liquid plaster of 
Paris. When the plaster of Paris hardens, the jar is ready 



1 "There are hundreds of kinds of tiger and ground beetles, which devour 
many cutworms and caterpillars. The tiger beetles are rather bright- 
colored and active. They chase other insects, or lie in wait for them. Many 
of the ground beetles are shiny black, others are marked in gay shades of 
gold, green, and purple. They usually prowl after nightfall, and some 
kinds climb trees in search of prey. The tumblebug and the ladybird belong 
to the beetle tribe. The latter is a special friend of man, since both 
the larva and the imago feed upon the eggs, larvae, and imagoes of 
destructive insects. The tumblebug rolls its egg in a ball of moist earth. 
We often see them trundling their treasure. The male beetle pushes and 
the female pulls, the forelegs being differently developed for the purpose. 
Spy upon a pair and watch them bury their treasure! The larva feeds 
upon the contents of the ball." 



WHAT TO DO WITH AGRICULTURE 205 

for use. Insects whose wings might be injured in the 
jar may be slipped into an air-tight box and killed with 
chloroform or ether. Beetles and larvae may be killed 
in alcohol. 

2. A butterfly net is easily made by fastening a handle to 
a small hoop and gathering to the hoop a bag made of 
cheesecloth. 

3. The breeding jar is a wide-mouthed jar, with a few 
inches of damp sand at the bottom, and a cheesecloth cover. 
Keep the insects in it supplied with fresh food of the kind 
on which they were found feeding. Cocoons should be 
kept in a cool place while developing. Galls may be 
collected in the spring and fall, and kept till the flies appear. 

4. Mounting board, insect pins, and similar needs may 
be obtained from any standard school supply house. 

Insect collecting is seasonable both in summer and 
winter, day and night. In winter, insects may be found 
beneath the bark of trees or in moss, and the pupae may be 
collected from trees and fences, under old boards and 
rocks, or buried a few inches in the ground. In summer, 
insects may be collected in all stages and conditions. One 
learns the most perhaps from the caterpillars, which may be 
fed and watched through all the changes of their metamor- 
phosis. Many valuable specimens among the moths, bee- 
tles, and other night flyers may be attracted by a lamp set 
in an open window. 

If possible, the male and female and the chrysalis of an 
insect should be grouped together on a card. Their name 
and the date of capture is sufficient label; but the helpful, 
ambitious entomologist will enter in a blank book provided 
for that purpose, short concise notes of information about 



2o6 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

each insect as it is added to the collection. Write to the 
Bureau of Entomology of the Department of Agriculture 
for information on mounting specimens, and for helpful 
leaflets, and suggestions for school use. 

REFERENCES FOR FARM aND SCHOOL LIBRARY 

Buflfum and Deaver, Sixty Lessons in Agriculture. 
Coulter, John G., Plant Life and Plant Uses. 
Hunter, G. W., Essentials of Biology. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
HOME SCIENCE 

Many teachers approach the study of home economics 
with a feehng much akin to that manifested by a nervous, 
high-strung horse when it sees a sheet of paper by the road- 
side. It is a gruesome, fearful thing, covering innumer- 
able pitfalls and vexations, and invented solely for their 
own undoing. But is this really true? Let us see. Life 
for most of us is a workaday existence, either in or out of 
the home, year in and year out. Whether we get pleasure 
out of our work as we go along, and find time for the 
enjoyment of our hobbies, will depend to a great extent 
upon our attitude toward our task, and the speed with 
which we turn off the work itself. Studying the ordinary 
school subjects will not produce this desirable philosophy 
and skill. Such can be acquired only by careful attention 
to the principles of home economics — which is nothing 
more nor less than a study of everyday living and the 
common-sense methods which go to make that living 
enjoyable. Home economics is the final connecting link 
between the school and the home. It is a study not too 
difficult to find a place in the simplest curriculum. 

School Credits for Home Work. Begin the work in home 
science by recognizing the importance of the boys' and girls' 
home duties. Possibly you have thoughtlessly been cen- 
suring Mary Jones for her rough hands, her hastily brushed 
hair, or her numerous cases of tardiness, while at the same 

207 



208 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND Tim COMMUNITY 

time you have commended Nellie Blake as a model of 
excellence. Do you know that Mary has an invalid 
mother and a younger brother and sister who require a great 
deal of care? Do you know that Mary rises at an early 
hour, helps the younger children to dress, prepares break- 
fast, washes the dishes, and puts the house in order before 
coming to school? Often she has barely five minutes for 
her own toilet and runs nearly all the way to the schoolhouse 
to avoid being reprimanded for tardiness. She is out of 
breath, tired and nervous, and there is an odd feeling of 
resentment in her heart when she hears Nellie commended 
for doing nothing! Nellie had only to get ready, eat her 
breakfast, and walk leisurely to school; she doesn't do any- 
thing at noon; and in the evening there is no supper to get, 
no dishes to wash, no children to amuse and put to bed. 
She is quite free to study her lessons and her mother and 
older sister are ready and willing to assist if she needs help. 
Why shouldn't Nellie Blake be neat and cheerful, with 
perfect lessons and no tardy marks? Why, indeed! But 
there are tears of bitterness in Mary's heart; she strives 
not to care when you say severely: "You are fifteen min- 
utes late this morning, Mary. You seem to be getting 
worse instead of better!" 

Often the hours spent outside of the schoolroom are of 
more importance in the development of boys and girls into 
capable men and women than the hours spent within. 
When Mary Jones acquires a home of her own, there will 
be no futile tears over hopeless household tasks she has 
never learned to do; unless perchance she comes to regard 
housekeeping as so much drudgery, and falls into the habit 
of doing things in a careless, slipshod manner. By linking 



HOME SCIENCE 20Q 

the school and home, and thereby raising the dignity of 
the homely humdrum tasks, Mary's whole life may be 
made incomparably happier and richer; so, too, might the 
lives of countless boys and girls be lifted and broadened. 
Such a step would also be found very conducive to self- 
government; for it is everywhere conceded that the boys 
and girls who have an interest and a responsibility in the 
affairs of the home are the better for it. If the school 
considers a careful, cheerful performance of little home 
duties of as much importance as the preparation of lessons, 
a spirit of friendly rivalry will soon be started. Each boy 
and girl will be curious to know just how much of the work 
about the home their schoolmates are doing, and no one 
will desire to be looked upon as a shirker. Many will fairly 
insist on being assigned certain tasks at home; and the 
parents, when once they have recovered from the sur- 
prise, will rise up and call the teacher blessed. 

School credits for home tasks prove a solid foundation 
for whatever additional work the teacher may care to out- 
line in "home economics. 

Extra credits may be offered for cheerfulness, kindness, 
politeness, courtesy to parents and friends, kindness to 
animals, doing things before being told, care of clothes, and 
table'manners. Cards may be prepared by the children, and 
the parents urged to give careful attention to the marking. 
Home tasks may compass from 50 to 75 per cent of the work 
done in economics. As a further stimulant to effort, the 
school board or interested individuals may be induced to 
give certain prizes to those averaging above 90 per cent. 

The Hot School Lunch. Many progressive teachers 
are insisting upon and providing for a hot lunch in the 



2IO THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

one-room rural schools. In its wake have followed increased 
attendance and decided gain in scholarship and deport- 
ment. "I have found that in country schools where the 
hot-lunch system has been introduced the pupils do twice 
as much work in the afternoon as when they were eating 
cold lunches," says the head of the rural school department 
of a Washington State Normal School. The statement 
is readily believed, if we consider the evidence of our fore- 
most food experts. Often children hurry away to school 
after a mouthful or two of breakfast; at noon, under the 
old plan, they bolt their food and hustle out to play. 
Small wonder that they have little energy for the after- 
noon tasks! It is not surprising that when hot food is 
supplied to stimulate the digestive juices, and time is 
taken to chew and enjoy the food, increased efficiency 
should result. 

But how can a hot lunch be prepared in a one-room 
schoolhouse where there are no conveniences, no equip- 
ment of any sort? Begin simply. Try adding a cup of hot 
cocoa or a bowl of soup to the child's lunch as brought from 
home. It turns the light repast into a feast! And it does 
not take much time, — a few minutes before school occa- 
sionally, a little time at recess, and at noon the finishing 
touches. The children will gladly bring such dishes as are 
needed. In winter, the heater may serve as a cookstove; 
in summer, a few minutes over an alcohol burner, then 
finishing with a fireless cooker will accomplish the work. 
A very suitable little alcohol "stove" may be purchased 
for fifty cents, and a fireless cooker is easily made. ^ The 

^See Experiment Station Circular No. 776, U. S. Department of Agricul- 
ture, on Home Demonstration Work. 



HOME SCIENCE 211 

boys will enjoy making a cupboard for the dishes. "Many 
hands make light work," and the task of dish washing is 
soon finished. The teacher should see that this is done 
correctly; the dishes properly scraped and piled; the silver 
washed, rinsed, and wiped; the dishes scalded and left to 
drain dry; the dish mop thoroughly cleaned and hung to 
sun and air. 

Besides the host of tempting nourishing soups, one may 
serve a variety of other dishes, simple and delicious. Try 
mush and milk; rice with raisins, milk, and sugar; potato 
chowder; oatmeal or wheat meal with milk and sugar; 
tapioca pudding; hot apple sauce or stewed dried fruits. 
No great amount of culinary skill is needed in the prepara- 
tion of these dishes. Almost any cookbook will furnish 
the necessary directions. In making soup, be careful to 
cook the ingredients a long time at a simmering point, so 
that every bit of essence will be extracted. If milk is to 
be used, add scalding hot and serve at once. Long cook- 
ing is necessary to bring out the flavor of mushes and por- 
ridges. " They should be made before school and placed in 
the fireless cooker. 

A recent writer in an educational journal tells how one 
practical little school teacher in Iowa, a few days after the 
heating and ventilating system was installed, cooked eggs 
in the humidifier with great success. Then she saw no 
reason why she couldn't cook food on top of the stove as 
well as in the humidifier. Noticing also the intense heat 
at the fuel door, she conceived the bright idea of baking 
potatoes on the little shelf between the outside door and the 
inner stove. This little shelf is really an oven, and po- 
tatoes, apples, and other foods can be baked there. 



212 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

In a certain rural district in northeastern Missouri, 
there is an ideal kitchen and dining room in the basement. 
In the beginning this school was just like any one of our 
50,000 corn-belt schoolhouses. It was simply one room, 
with the plaster off in many places, a stove in the center, 
and around the wall a blackboard which was entirely too 
high for the little tots. The outbuildings were without 
doors; tramps had made away with several of the shutters, 
and broken numerous panes of glass. The district was 
composed of "progressives" and "standpatters," and torn 
by petty disagreements over little nothings. Then an 
enthusiastic teacher arrived on the scene, and doors, 
screens, paint, and plaster appeared where needed. The 
playground became a most interesting place. A tall flag- 
pole went up in front of the building, and on a certain 
appointed day the people gathered under the cheery flag. 
Soon afterwards, the men of the neighborhood assembled 
to dig out the basement, haul sand and cement, and put in 
concrete floor and walls. The district put in a furnace. 
Later an oil stove, sink, drinking fountain, and pressure 
tank were added. The men built tables which were easily 
put out of the way when not in use, and there were cup- 
boards which the women took delight in furnishing with 
china and utensils. At first, the kitchen and dining room 
were used only for neighborhood affairs, but soon a cooking 
class was established, and it was not long until the school 
began giving delightful little luncheons, suppers, and even 
formal dinners. Now six acres of land are leased from an 
adjoining farm, a wonderful school garden furnishes interest 
and inspiration to the whole county, and a goodly part of 
the produce grown is utilized right in the school kitchen. 



HOME SCIENCE 213 

In another country school, the energetic patrons painted 
the smoke-grimed walls and ceihng, hung neat curtains at 
the windows, provided improved chairs and seventy- two 
feet of fine pulp blackboard. When the teacher demon- 
strated the value and need of hot lunches, the parents 
provided a two-burner blue-flame oil stove and the neces- 
sary utensils. The little five-by-nine entry became the 
kitchen, and there the first cooking was done. In more 
than a year there have been few days when the pupils 
have not prepared at least one warm dish for lunch. Jelly 
and preserves were made and sold, and funds secured in 
other ways; to-day a neat kitchen 12 by 14 feet adjoins the 
main building. One end of this room is fitted with work- 
table, cupboards, and oil stove; the other has a work- 
bench and tools for manual training. Here the girls cook 
and the boys do repair and construction work for the 
schoolroom and the neighborhood generally. They are 
privileged to use the room when lessons are finished, and 
thus time which otherwise might be spent in mischief passes 
quickly and happily. In this school, as in countless others, 
materials are brought from home. 

So much for difficulties that have been overcome. Each 
teacher must work out her own problem, remembering that 
"where there's a will, there's a way." In planning her 
menus she will do well to keep in mind the teacher's slogan 
— limeliness. Farm wives will cheerfully hand out meat 
and vegetables in season; but don't ask for fresh beef in 
June, or for celery and lettuce in winter. Keep in mind 
the activities of the farm — when eggs are most plentiful, 
what time of year the fatted calf and the pigs are likely to 
be killed, what vegetables are in season. Above all be 



214 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

prepared for emergencies. Very probably on the day 
when you have planned to have meat loaf with tomato 
sauce, there will be nothing forthcoming but the tomatoes; 
or possibly instead of meat, eggs will be cheerfully produced. 
If you fail to rise gracefully to the occasion, you will miss 
a golden opportunity; housekeeping is made up of just 
such little unforeseen difficulties. Often considerable 
management and tact are necessary to keep the difficulties 
from becoming real vexations. Don't miss the chance for 
an object lesson worth while! And really the instance 
cited is no problem at all — ij you know what to do. To- 
matoes are the most versatile of vegetables. They can be 
juggled into all sorts of interesting dishes — from soup to 
fritters, toast, and tomato loaf. Combined with eggs, or 
a relish of bacon, or bacon gravy, they are food for the gods. 
Get out your cookbook, or confer with some good house- 
wife; it is more fascinating than poring over the latest novel, 
providing you are in the spirit. It is a good plan sometimes 
to allow the girls to prepare dishes they have learned to 
make at home. If these can be arranged in the nature of a 
surprise to you and to the school, so much the better. 

FOOD VALUES 

Supplement the cooking lessons with a few minutes' study 
of food values each day, in which the whole school may 
participate. A good advanced text in physiology should 
be procured for reference.^ 

1 The Department of Agriculture at Washington provides valuable 
pamphlets on the subject: See Experiment Stations Circular No. 4, Food 
Nutrients and Food Economy; Circular No. 46, The Functions and Uses 
of Food; Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 28, The Chemical Composition 
of American Food Materials; Farmers' Bulletin No. 142, Principles of 
Nutrition and Nntritive Value of Food. 



HOME SCIENCE 215 

1. What food is. 

2. The use of food. 

(a) To build up tissue waste. 

(b) To be burned for the production of energy. 

3. Classification of food. 

(a) Proteids — meats, bread, corn, peas, eggs, fish, 

milk. Useful for tissue building. 

(b) Carbohydrates — made up chiefly of sugar or starch, 

such as potatoes, rice, etc. Useful for energy 
making. 

(c) Fats — such as butter, fat meat, cream. Useful 

for making body heat. 

(d) Water and salt. 

(e) Other mineral substances. 

4. Quantity and proportion of foods in diet. 

5. The need for a balanced ration. 

(a) Make a diet table. 

(b) Prepare a series of menus which shall comply with 

this table. 

6. Difference between animal and vegetable food. 
Problems: 

1. Give a definition of food and name the substances 
used as food. 

2. Can a man subsist upon proteids alone? Why not? 

3. Show why an abundance of water is needed in food. 

4. Are condiments and beverages properly classed as food? 

5. Show why salt is the only mineral which man adds to 
his food. 

6. How can we tell how much food we need? 

7. Give the four points which determine the digestibility 
and value of a food. 



2l6 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

8. What is the result if too much sugar or starch is eaten? 

9. What is the value of indigestible matter in food? 
10. What is the value of sugar as a food?^ 

Experiments with Food: 

1. To demonstrate the amount of water in food. 

(a) Weigh a piece of fresh beef. Set aside in a warm, 
dry place for twenty-four hours. Weigh again. To what 
is the loss of weight due? 

(b) Pare an apple or a potato. Weigh the fruit and allow 
it to dry. Note loss of water from day to day. 

2. To show the presence of starch. 

(a) By the familiar iodine test. 

(b) Grate a potato into a glass of water. Note the 
white powdery substance — the starch, which collects at 
the bottom of the glass. 

3. To show the presence of fat. 

(a) Rub some flaxseed meal upon paper. Note the result. 

(b) Shake a small piece of butter or a little sweet oil 
with ether. What happens? Filter, and allow the ether 
to evaporate. 

4. To show grain albumin, or gluten. 

Mix a small mass of wheat flour dough and gently wash 
out the starch by kneading it under water. The gluten 
will be left as a stringy, sticky mass. 

5. To show the amount of food required daily. 

(a) Weigh out the different amounts of bread, eggs, 
meat, milk, and butter which are required daily. Also 
measure out a quart of water. 

(b) Weigh out the required quantities of fat, sugar, and 
albumin. The last-named may be represented by gelatine. 

1 See Farmers' Bulletin No. 535, Sugar and Its Value as Food. 



HOME SCIENCE 217 

SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Milk:-" 

1. Its composition and food value. 

2. Its nutritive value as compared with other foods. 

3. Necessity for keeping milk covered. 

4. Pasteurization. 

5. Making condensed milk. 

6. Butter and its imitations. 

7. Testing milk. 
Problems: 

1. Show that milk is a perfect food. How may it be 
used to the best advantage? How may the diseases whose 
germs it is prone to contain be avoided? 

2. Show how to distinguish good milk from poor, and 
describe two methods for testing it. 

3. What are the characteristics of a good dairy cow? 

4. Name the essential factors in good butter making. 
Cheese:^ 

1. Its composition and food value. 

2. Cheese making. (A visit to a cheese factory.) 

3. Familiar kinds of cheese. 

4. Its use as a meat substitute. 

5. Cheese dishes for the schoolroom. 

(a) Scrambled eggs with cheese. 

(b) Macaroni and cheese. 

(c) Cottage cheese. 

(d) Cheese fondue. 

(e) Welsh rarebit. 

Problem: Make cheese by using rennet. 

^ See Farmers' Bulletins Xos. 42, 55, 63, 74, 106, 241, 287, 363, 413. 
- See Farmers' Bulletins Nos. 166 and 487. 



2l8 THE TEACHP:R, the school, and the COJVUVIUNITY 

Eggs:' 

1. Composition and food value. 

2. Nutritive value as compared with other foods and as 
a meat substitute. 

3. Preserving eggs. 

4. Testing eggs. 

(a) Fresh and stale eggs. 

(b) Incubation. 
Meaf:^ 

1. Its composition and food value. 

2. Place in the diet. 

3. Meat from the different animals. 

(a) Beef. 

(b) Pork. 

(c) Mutton. 

(d) Chicken. 

(e) Wild game. 

4. Different cuts of meat, their cost and nutritive 
value. 

5. How to know good meat. 

6. Using the cheaper cuts. 

7. Best method of cooking meat. 

8. Soup stock. 

9. Left-overs and combinations. 

10. Care of meat. 
Problems : 

1. Show how meat ranks as a food. In what is it de 
ficient? 

2. Compare fresh, preserved, and decayed meat. 

1 See Farmers' BulleLin No. 128, Eggs and their Uses as Food. 

^ See Farmers' Bulletin No. 391, Economical Use of Meat in tlie Home. 



HOME SCIENCE 219 

3. What diseases may be transmitted by meat? How 
are they avoided? 

4. Show how to select good meat in the market. 

5. How do fish and shellfish resemble meat? 

6. How is beef tea made? Compare its food value with 
that of meat. 

Substitutes for Meat: 

Not many years ago meat was considered a necessity in 
every home. Now we are coming to see that other foods 
besides meat can be made to serve in building up our 
body tissue, at a cost much less than that of meat. Many 
of these cheaper foods have the added advantage of 
leaving no waste substances in the body, hence they are 
not such a severe tax on the bodily organs. "Enough with- 
out waste" — this .is the meaning of the word economy, 
and it is the rock on which the foundation of Home Eco- 
nomics is builded. We must provide what food our bodies 
need to enable the organs to carry on their proper func- 
tions, and to keep the body in repair, and we must do 
this as' cheaply as possible, hence the value of meat sub- 
stitutes. 

Macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli, and noodles contain so 
much starch and flesh-building material that they are 
equal to meat as a food if combined with cheese, and when 
plenty of rich, well-seasoned sauce is added they are most 
palatable. If brown gravy is desired, add a few drops 
of caramel coloring made by browning sugar and dissolving 
it in a little water. Many people prefer tomato sauce 
instead of white sauce with these dishes. 

Beans and peas contain about twenty-five per cent 
of albumin, and are therefore very good meat substitutes, 



220 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

especially for an outdoor laborer who has need of a great 
deal of energy.^ 

Fish contains about sixteen per cent of albumin and 
six per cent of fat. It is not so easily digested as meat, but 
it can take the place of meat as food.^ Formerly it was 
thought that fish was especially nourishing for the brain, 
but the brain is nourished by the same substances as the 
rest of the body, hence fish is hardly so good for it as beef- 
steak. 

Review what has been learned about eggs, cheese, and 
milk as meat substitutes. Are eggs a complete food for 
man? Why is milk called the most perfect of foods? Can 
a grown person live on milk alone? 
Meat Substitute Dishes Jor the Schoolroom: 

1. Macaroni and cheese. 

2. Vermicelli soup. 

3. Spaghetti, tomato sauce, and cheese. (Moisten 
sufficient boiled spaghetti with the sauce, add alternate 
layers of cheese and buttered crumbs, and bake twenty 
minutes.) 

4. Baked beans. 

5. Cream of pea soup. 

6. Creamed peas and tomatoes. 

7. Eggs in various forms. 

8. Fresh fish. (See suggestions in note below.) 

9. Scalloped oysters, fried oysters. 
10. Baked salmon, salmon patties. 



* See Farmers' Bulletin No. 121, Beans, Peas, and Other Legtimes as 
Food. 

* See Farmers' Bulletin No. 85, Fish as Food, and Economic Circular 
No. 1 1 , Canned Salmon Cheaper than Meats. 



HOME SCIENCE 221 

I'cgetdblcs:^ 

1. Special use of vegetable food. 

2. Why vegetables are cooked. 

3. The value of green vegetables. 

4. Methods of cooking vegetables. 

(a) Steaming. (d) Frying. 

(b) Casserole cooking. (e) Sauteing. 

(c) Baking. (f) Escalloping. 

(g) "Au gratin" dishes. 
Vegetable Dishes for tlie Schoolroom: 

Baked potatoes. Creamed cabbage. 

Potatoes au gratin. Mashed turnips. 

Saratoga potatoes. Asparagus or Swiss chard. 

Fried potatoes. Creamed spinach. 

Candied sweet potatoes. Cauliflower au gratin. 

Creamed carrots. Fried parsnips. 

String beans. Fresh peas. 

Bean chowder. Escalloped corn. 

Onion chowder. Tomatoes, any style. 

Many vegetables contain all the substances which we 
need for both repair and energy, so that man can live 
in good health upon a strictly vegetable diet. This he 
could not do on lean meat, and would find very difficult 
upon milk. The most nutritious vegetable foods are the 
cereals or grains, and such leguminous seeds as peas and 
beans. These contain much proteid for tissue building 
and much carbohydrate for energy formation, also min- 
eral salts. 



' See Farmers' Bulletin No. 256, Preparation of Vegetables for the Table; 
University of Missouri. Extension Service, Circular i, Jan., 1915, Cooking 
of Vegetables. 



222 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

Many of the vegetables are to the human body as hay 
and fodder are to the horse — bulk feed. They contain 
some starch and sugar, and much fibrous substance wholly 
indigestible. Their agreeable taste aids in promoting the 
flow of the digestive fluids, and their bulk excites the 
peristalsis of the intestine and helps to keep the bowels 
open. 

Potatoes and rice are useful principally for their starch. 
The green vegetables, as lettuce, spinach, onions, kale, and 
cauliflower, are useful for their mineral salts and organic 
acids which act upon the liver and kidneys, and for their 
bulk material. Where men are deprived of these or any 
substitute for them they are apt to contract a disease 
known as scurvy. Many vegetables are rich in iron- 
bearing albumin, which is necessary for the structure of 
the blood corpuscles. Of these celery and spinach are 
probably best. 

All green vegetables should be put on to cook in boiling 
water. Add salt to the water in which greens or vegetables 
grown overground are cooked; underground vegetables are 
better if salt is added after cooking. Cabbage, cauliflower, 
onions, and other vegetables containing volatile oil must 
be boiled rapidly in an uncovered vessel. 
Corn Mcal:^ 

Food value: Wheat flour contains just a little more 
protein than corn meal, and a very small amount more 
starch. Corn meal, on the other hand, contains roughly 
four and a half times as much fat as wheat, and three times 
as much mineral matter. 

* See Farmers' Bulletin No. 565, Corn Meal as a Food, and Ways of 
Using It. 



HOME SCIENCE 223 

Corn Meal Dishes for the Schoolroom: 

(a) Corn bread. 

(b) Mush and milk; fried mush plain, or with sugar 
sirup, or cheese sauce. 

(c) Meat scrapple. 

(d) Spider corn cake. 
Rice: 

1. Composition and food value. 

2. Use of rice with meat. 
Rice Dishes for the Schoolroom: 

(a) Plain steamed rice. 

(b) Rice cooked in milk, with raisins. 

(c) Rice croquettes. 

(d) Casserole of meat and rice. 
Bread:^ 

1. Why is bread called "The staff of hfe?" 

2. Principles of good bread making. 

3. Hard-grain wheats. How flour is made. 

4. Graham flour. Boston brown bread. 

5. Unwholesomeness of hot breads. 

6. Can one live on bread alone ?^ 

SANITATION 

Much has been said in the chapter on "Physical Training 
and Hygiene" concerning the need of concentrated work in 
sanitation in the rural districts. With the opening of 
spring, inaugurate a "Clean-up Week." Begin with the 
schoolhouse; see that buildings and grounds are put in 

1 See Farmers' Bulletin No 389, Bread and Bread Making. 
^ A collection of the Farmers' Bulletins on foods issued by the Department 
of Agriculture will aid in the school study of home economics. 



224 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

first-class condition. Establish a system of credits for 
home work. Following are points that may be covered: 
Cleaning yard, pruning trees, pruning bushes and vines, 
setting out trees and shrubs, building trellises, painting or 
whitewashing fence and outbuildings, painting house, 
cleaning windows, cleaning or papering walls, painting 
inside woodwork and floors, cleaning room.^ 

Organize a Civic League, with the proper officers and 
committees. Aim to interest the parents as much as 
possible. Small prizes may be offered for: 

The best kept lawn. 

The most attractive display of porch boxes. 

The best line of bird houses. 

The best drinking fountain for the birds. 

The best display of ornamental plants on the lawn. 

The most attractive summerhouse. 

Novel ideas in garden seats. 

The neatest kept hedge. 

The most flourishing arbor. 

The best croquet ground. 

The best tennis court. 

Trellises of vines screening approach to toilet. 

The best homemade lawn swing, garden chair, and 
hammock. 

The slogans "Swat the Fly," and "Death to the Mos- 
quito," are worth pushing. Inaugurate an active cam- 
paign against these pests.^ 



' See Farmers' Bulletin No. 185, Beautifying the HomeGrounds;No. 432, 
How a City Family Managed a Farm; No. 270, Modern Conveniences for the 
Farm Home. 

^ See Farmers' Bulletins Nos. 155, 444, 450, 4S9, 463, 478. 



HOME SCIENCE 225 

Care of the Sick: 

1. Making bed. 

2. Bathing. 

3. Care of room. 

4. Poultices. 

5. Hot-bran bags, a substitute for hot-water bottle. 

6. Consideration of the patient's diet. 

(a) Tempting foods. 

(b) Attractive serving. 

7. Cheerfulness. 

8. Care of convalescent. 

9. What not to do. 
10. Disinfection. 

THE HOME 

The Model Farm Home. Encourage the boys and girls 
to plan homes they would like to own. These may be 
modeled in clay or plaster, drawn with pen and ink, or 
simply fashioned from pictures selected from papers and 
magazines and pasted on a sheet of cardboard or heavy 
Manila paper. Let them plan the different rooms of their 
house, giving particular attention to simplicity, conven- 
ience, and color scheme.^ 



Problems: 






I. An inviting hall. 


7- 


The model bathroom. 


2. The stairway. 


8. 


The sleeping porch. 


3. Cozy corners. 


9- 


Attractive bedrooms. 


4. A cheerful living room. 


10. 


Arrangement of the base- 


5. The dining room. 




ment. 


6. The model kitchen. 


II. 


The water system. 



12. The light and heating plants. 
1 See Farmers' Bulletins Nos. 126, 432, and 607. 



226 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

Get as many pictures as possible from tlie household 
and trade journals illustrating these points, the object 
being to train the taste and ideals of the future home 
makers. 

In home decoration the keynote should be appropriate- 
ness, whether in a palace or a cottage. Color should be 
carefully considered. Bright colors and tints should not be 
used without very good reason. The eye should be trained 
in color combinations, and bright colors should not be 
used together; for if too intense, they will discord, and 
offend the eye as discord in music offends the ear. 
Problems for Youthful Decorators: 

1. The walls — their position as the background of the 
home. If paint is used, soft, neutral colors are desir- 
able. Avoid large flower or scroll designs in wall paper. 
Why? 

2. The pictures — which should be few in number and 
of real worth. Copies from the great masters may be 
obtained at Httle cost. Avoid gaudy frames and cheap 
collections of family portraits. Passepartout a few good 
pictures. These may be hung in the schoolroom or the 
children may have them for their own rooms at home. 

3. The woodwork. 

(a) What kinds of finish are desirable? 

(b) Samples of different stained woods may be studied. 

4. Curtains and draperies. Exhibit pictures of effective 
door and window treatment. Show samples of materials 
and discuss their comparative value. Girls select their 
favorite material and illustrate an attractive window drape 
by drawing, or by the use of tissue paper. 

5. The treatment of floors. 



HOME SCIENCE 22 7 

(a) What finish is most desirable? 

(b) Why are rugs preferred to carpets? 

(c) Talk about linoleum and other floor coverings: how 
these are made; their value in various rooms. 

Textiles. Exhibit samples of sheeting, pillowcase and 
table linen, and the common dress fabrics. Teach the girls 
to recognize them at sight and to know their value. Have 
them look up the stories of flax, cotton, and silk. Find out 
how calicoes and other goods are printed. Is it economical 
for a woman to spend her time making such articles as 
sheets and pillowcases, when these can be bought of good 
quality ready made? 

The Class in Gumption. A recent writer on household 
problems tells of a school where a class in gumption was a 
part of the daily program. "The pupils were taught how 
to do all sorts of handy jobs about a home, stopping leaks, 
setting panes of glass, fixing refractory locks and hinges, 
putting new washers on faucets, making simple labor-saving 
devices out of material at hand — in fact, learning to adapt 
themselves quickly to any need which arose." Can you 
imagine anything more practical? Surely gimiption — the 
adaptation of practical common sense — is more necessary 
in housekeeping than in any other walk of life. Let us 
have more of such classes! 
Problems: 

1. Making old furniture new. 

2. Cretonne and a box of tacks. 

3. Handy devices for the home. 

(a) Dish drain. (d) Footstool. 

(b) Clothes rack. (e) Newspaper rack. 

(c) Ironing board. 



228 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

4. The fireless cooker.^ 

5. A cheap and efficient ice box.^ 

6. A cheap and efficient sterilizer.^ 

Thrift. Housekeeping is a business, just as difficult 
and important as any commercial enterprise. To carry it 
on successfully requires a high degree of skill, wide informa- 
tion, and judgment. To these characteristics must be added 
thrift. "Thrift is not an affair of the pocketbook, but of 
character," says Miss Florence E. Ward, specialist in club 
work. Department of Agriculture; "one can be a spend- 
thrift on a dollar as well as on a thousand dollars." Thrice 
blessed is that teacher who succeeds in impressing this upon 
her pupils, and who leads them to an understanding of the 
basic principle of home science — true economy, which 
means not only saving, but planning, earning, and con- 
serving. Wise economy makes scrimping unnecessary, and 
proves conclusively that "money is valuable only as it 
serves to make people happier and better." 

Teaching the pupils to be thrifty can be made practical 
and interesting. 

1. Put an itemized jumble of a day's work on the board. 
Have the pupils put it into desirable routine. Discuss 
the various plans. Determine who has the best one and 
why. 

2. Specify a certain sum to provide food for a family of 
six one week. Let the pupils work out menus which shall 
conform to food requirements and keep within the sum set, 
saving a little if possible. 

3. Teach the keeping of household accounts. 

^ See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 296. 

2 Described in Farmers' Bulletin, No. 353. 



HOME SCIENCE 229 

4. Show how money may be saved by buying in quan- 
tity. 

5. Discuss the value of a truck and fruit garden in home 
economy. 

6. Keep a bulletin of "savings," — little discoveries in 
the economy of time, material, and money: such as, "A 
pinch of soda in sour apple sauce is a saving of sugar." 
"Salt sprinkled upon anything which has boiled over on 
the stove or in the oven stops the smudge." 



CHAPTER XIX 
SCHOOL RECREATIONS AND AMUSEMENTS 

Our minds often need rest to be better able to take up the 
subject in hand. Bishop Hall says, "Recreation is to the 
mind, as whetting is to the scythe, to sharpen the edge of it 
which would otherwise grow dull and blunt." School 
recreations and amusements are important factors in the 
make-up of every good school. Rightly conducted they 
are valuable aids in school government, and may advan- 
tageously employ much time that would otherwise be 
wasted. Teachers have long recognized the fact that 
children need change and variety. It is one of the teacher's 
problems to furnish scope for the ever-increasing mental 
and bodily activity of the child, to supply new food for 
thought and new subjects of interest. The mastery of the 
assigned lesson is only a part of the pupil's education. He 
must be led to acquire a knowledge of current events, and 
to become acquainted with literature. The time that can 
be taken from the regular work of the classes and given to 
more general information is limited. Therefore, the best 
use should be made of it. Pupils would be able to do 
better work if they had a few minutes, recreation after each 
hour's study. 

In the majority of American schools, it is customary to 
have some form of devotional exercises in the morning. 
These when properly conducted may be made the means 
of profitable recreation; their attractiveness lending a 

230 



SCHOOL RECREATIONS AND AMUSEMENTS 23 1 

special incentive to punctuality in the morning. Where 
Scripture readings are used, selections should be made 
which are complete stories in themselves or which contain 
strong moral lessons. It is not advisable to comment on 
Scriptural readings, but there can be no objection to com- 
ments of a purely historical, literary, or moral character, 
and they may add greatly to the force of the reading. 
Many passages of Scripture contain little meaning when 
read apart from their historical setting. Incidents of the 
Bible narrative have been made the themes for many 
notable poems and songs. It heightens the effect to use 
narrative, poem, and song together when possible. The 
following illustration will show how this may be done. 

A good example of faith and courage is revealed in the 
story of how captive Daniel stood before the throng at the 
impious feast of the king Belshazzar and, rebuking the king 
for pride and idolatry, read and interpreted the hand 
writing on the wall. The Bible narrative is found in the 
fifth chapter of Daniel. Read the well-know poem by 
Lord Byron entitled, "The Vision of Belshazzar." The 
narrative also suggests the familiar hymn, "The Hand- 
writing on the Wall." 

Generally the Scripture readings will occupy only a por- 
tion of the time devoted to opening exercises. To these 
readings may be added responsive quotations at roll call, 
a school newspaper, discussions of current events and 
other items of interest. When quotations are used, it is 
a good plan to ask for quotations from some particular 
author or upon specified subjects. Quotations of thought- 
fragments will be of httle value, for they may be gathered 
almost without effort by the pupil. The newspaper might 



232 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

appear weekly, biweekly, or monthly, as the school prefers. 
Editors should be appointed for the various departments; 
editorial, society, current events, local news, and advertise- 
ments. A school paper conducted properly would give 
the pupil valuable information regarding the preparation of 
manuscript and the general make-up of a paper, besides 
being a source of never-failing interest and no little 
amusement. 

Aside from the opening exercises, the recitation always 
presents scope for recreation. A change in the manner of 
recitation, from time to time, is an excellent thing. Sup- 
pose, for instance, that the class in geography has been 
studying the Mississippi River system and is fully pre- 
pared to tell where the river rises, how long it is, between 
what states it flows, and so on. Instead of going through 
the routine of questions and answer during the class period, 
the skillful teacher takes pupils on an imaginary ride down 
the river from the Falls of St. Anthony. They are led to 
observe the varied resources and industries of the region 
through which they pass, the size of the various cities, some 
of their famous buildings, their "nicknames" and history, 
the advantages which they possess for trading and manu- 
facturing, the sportive names of the states passed, some- 
thing of their people and history. The teacher occa- 
sionally reads selections relating to some point which they 
are passing, and shows interesting views of buildings and 
scenery along the route. Then, too, she has samples of 
products from the different localities, which the pupils 
examine with interest. Very likely it takes more than a 
week for them to reach the Gulf of Mexico, but the time has 
been well spent, and they have learned more about the 



SCHOOL RECREATIONS AND AMUSEMENTS 233 

Mississippi Valley than they would in a month in the old 
way. After the journey is over they write a composition 
about their trip. 

Many teachers neglect composition work. Exercises in 
the expression of thought should be constant from the time 
the child enters school until he leaves it. The Committee 
of Ten report that pupils should begin to compose in 
writing not later than the third year. Before this time, 
they should copy selections from the printed page, from 
memory, and from dictation, as an exercise in spelling, 
capitalization, and punctuation. Too often pupils regard 
composition writing as a dreaded task. Often teachers 
expect too much of pupils; it takes time and practice to 
produce an excellent composition. Good results may be 
obtained by talking with the pupils about a subject, and 
then asking them to write what they can about it within 
a given time. The work should always be read and kindly 
criticized. The time for writing may gradually be ex- 
tended, and the pupils will soon be able to write readily and 
naturally. A composition hour should be arranged in the 
Friday afternoon program. 

It has become quite a puzzle for teachers to know what 
to do on Friday afternoon since speaking pieces has gone 
out of fashion. Why not occasionally revive the old cus- 
tom, which had so much to commend it? Prepare an 
attractive, interesting program, and invite the parents to be 
present. Detail committees to wait upon the guests, and 
to exhibit and explain the specimens of school work which 
decorate the room. It is not advisable to spend much time 
decorating for the occasion; let the decorations be the 
accumulation of the term's work. After the program has 



234 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

been given, let the teacher announce the intention to have 
every Friday afternoon "reception afternoon," and invite 
the parents to be present whenever possible. Then she 
must mass her energies to gather attractive Friday after- 
noon material. No one should go away from a meeting of 
this kind without a feeling of conscious gain for himself or 
of pride in the work and success of the pupils. Composi- 
tions, minute speeches, hours with noted authors, quizzes, 
and conundrums are among the many features that help 
to make an interesting program. 

Besides the Friday afternoon program, there are the 
celebrations of authors' birthdays, and of days notable in 
American history. These may be planned so that they will 
interfere but little with the regular work of the school, by 
assigning different parts of the exercises to different divi- 
sions of pupils. 

Space forbids dwelling upon the subjects of the old-time 
school exhibitions, of school debates, of gymnastic recrea- 
tions, of experiment lessons, and the countless other items 
that come under the head of recreation. In this, as in all 
other departments of school work, the teacher must be 
careful not to ride a hobby. As Bishop Hall says, "He 
that spends his whole time in recreation is ever whetting, 
never mowing; his grass may grow and his steed may starve. 
The work goes forward when the scythe is so seasonably 
and moderately whetted that it may cut, and so cut that 
it may have the help of sharpening." 

Here, also, the subject of out-door amusements demands 
attention. Mental work is wearing, and will soon produce 
physical exhaustion in a growing child. He needs out- 
door exercise, and happy, healthful play. No amount of 



SCHOOL RFXREATIONS AND AMUSEMENTS 235 

punishment is half so effective as a half hour of hard play 
to curb the spirit of mischief and disorder. 

The teacher should manifest an intelligent interest in 
the pupils' amusements. Whenever possible, she should 
become their companion as well as teacher. She will 
thus win their confidence and regard, and her field for useful- 
ness will be widened. "The teacher should feel an interest 
in the sports of his pupils that is as great as his interest in 
their studies; for play is an essential of healthy develop- 
ment. Every honest, sound, hearty game is just so much 
added to the reserve force of health for the future; is just 
so much added to the light-hear tedness of the present."^ 

1 Horace Mann. 



CHAPTER XX 
DUTIES OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS 

Between people who are so often brought into contact as 
teachers and parents, it is desirable that there should exist 
some well-defined understanding regarding relative duties 
and obligations. In many of our public schools, the use- 
fulness of one teacher after another is effectually destroyed 
through want of sympathy between the school and the 
home. Too often the parents row in one direction and the 
teacher in another. Why is this? Let us inquire into some 
of the causes of misunderstanding between parents and 
teachers. 

Parents often do not sufficiently recognize the importance 
of the school. This lack of appreciation shows itself in 
many ways. Chief among them is keeping the pupils at 
home for trifles. Mr. Blank makes a trip to a neighboring 
city, and Tommy coaxes to accompany him; as he has not 
been away for some time, the request is granted. Next 
morning Tommy returns to school, but at noon he reports 
that the lessons for the afternoon are all so easy, just what 
he has had before and knows perfectly, and he doesn't see 
any use in going back that afternoon. So he stays at home, 
and very likely does not return to school for a week, and 
then it is only a few days until another break. It is im- 
possible to interest him in school at this rate. 

The following story indicates conditions with which one 
rural school teacher had to contend. The nearest house 

236 



DUTIES OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS 237 

was within a stone's throw of the schoolhouse, and from 
this home came five pupils. There were two little tots at 
home, and the mother was naturally a busy woman who 
needed much help. She fully understood how to keep the 
children busy, and hardly knew how to get along without 
them. She finally hit upon a plan by which they could 
attend school and help her, too. Fortunately, they had 
a dinner bell, and when she wanted a pail of water or an 
armful of wood, one tap of the bell signaled Willie; or per- 
haps the baby was cross and needed some one to play with, 
then two taps brought Emma, and so on for the other 
three. Of course the bell often caught the youngsters right 
in the midst of a recitation, but they were expected to drop 
everything and run. The teacher endured this for nearly two 
weeks, and then she ventured to remonstrate, and finally, 
to the indignation of the mother, refused to allow the chil- 
dren to leave the room during school hours. The parents 
succeeded in keeping that teacher from being reappointed 
the following term. 

Parents are apt to overestimate their children's knowl- 
edge. They are too anxious to have them advance, and 
thus they encourage superficial work. One mother was 
heard to complain before her little daughter that the child's 
arithmetic, an ordinary third-grade book, was too easy. 
It contained nothing but what she had had for over a year; 
there were not enough problems, and it did not "get down 
to business." It was suggested that it was a difficult 
matter for a child of eight years to "get down to business," 
as her reasoning faculties were not developed, and that it 
was better for her to drill on the fundamental operations 
until she could perform the work quickly and accurately 



238 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

before attempting anything more difficult. Upon ques- 
tioning the teacher, it was found that when this child was 
left to do her work alone she was careless and apt to make 
mistakes, and needed just the drill she was getting. 

A young lady of sixteen who prided herself on having 
attended school in Chicago, appeared in the "upper room" 
of a small village school of two rooms the second week of 
the term, and astonished the teacher by saying she would 
like to study algebra, geometry, ancient history, Latin, and 
astronomy. The teacher frankly told her that she was 
willing to teach her what she could if the pupil could 
satisfy her of being prepared for such work. The pupil 
wanted to review algebra, and objected to reciting with 
the ''beginning class," because she had been over the work 
and could probably go faster than the class. But the 
teacher refused to have another class, as there was not time 
for it. The teacher had a suspicion that the pupil did not 
know as much as she thought she did, and experienced 
some satisfaction in completely confusing her in the 
division of one polynomial by another. Then the teacher 
insisted upon seeing the grades from the former school, or 
else upon giving an examination before commencing the 
other studies. The next day the pupil brought a common 
school diploma! She was put with the ninth grade, and 
soon proved to be the poorest scholar in the class. She 
attended the school only a short time. What was the use? 
The teacher didn't know anything! There are many other 
young people not unlike this young lady. 

Parents are too critical. Many are constantly on the 
lookout for mistakes, and criticize the teacher before their 
children. 



DUTIES OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS 239 

Some parents are inclined to dictate. A good many of 
the parents nowadays have either "kept school," or have 
some pretty well defmed ideas as to how it should be done. 
They are not slow to send messages embodying their ideas, 
and are offended if the teacher does not adopt them at once. 
Doubtless many teachers have had an invitation from some 
friendly patron to bring difiticulties to her if they need help, 
because she has taught school and knows just what dififi- 
culties teachers have! 

A lack of personal acquaintance frequently results in 
misunderstandings. Teachers sometimes spend months 
with pupils whose parents they have never seen. During 
this time, the parents have probably formed their opinion 
of the teacher, and spoken freely either for or against her, 
and yet very likely they do not even know her by sight! 
All the knowledge they have is derived through their chil- 
dren, a knowledge which may be right, or it may be wrong. 
Too many people believe implicitly what their children 
come home and tell. 

We must not be understood to blame the parents for all 
these troubles. Often teachers are wholly unworthy the 
confidence and cooperation of the parents. Not a few 
indolent, ignorant persons have been licensed to teach 
through having influence with the county superintendent. 
They have gained their situations through paper qualifica- 
tions, and so far as usefulness in their schools is concerned, 
they might as well be paper teachers. Again, while the 
teacher may be well-educated, she may be too self -sufficient, 
too pedantic, or too haughty, and unable to teach. 

As a means of avoiding these evils, or of removing them 
when they have found a place, let us consider some of these 



240 TflE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

mutual deficiencies. Let us first take up the duties of the 
teacher. 

1. She should fully recognize the importance of her work. 

2. She should seek to become acquainted with the 
parents. 

3. She should be willing to explain her plans to the 
parents. 

4. She should encourage the parents to visit the school. 

5. She should truthfully represent the children to their 
parents. 

The parent inquires, "How does Johnny get along?" 
"Oh," says the teacher pleasantly, "Johnny is doing 
nicely." 

However, Johnny may be doing anything but nicely; 
possibly the teacher might have been even then pondering 
over what to do with Johnny. The answer does not long 
deceive the parent, and is injurious to both teacher and 
pupil. 

6. Teachers should have "good manners." From their 
almost constant contact with pupils, they are apt to think 
their own opinions infallible; and they sometimes commit 
the ridiculous error of treating those wiser than themselves 
as children in knowledge. The teacher should endeavor 
to make her conversation instructive, but she should assume 
no airs of superior wisdom. She should remember that the 
majority of persons like to learn without being reminded 
that they are learners. 

7. She should be willing to give her whole time to the 
school if necessary. 

8. She should carefully and conscientiously perform 
every known duty. She can then be happy, for there will 



DUTIES OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS 241 

be the satisfaction of having performed her duties to the 
best of her ability. 

But after all, her success will depend very much on the 
parents. They must come forward and crown the work. 
How many teachers have had the satisfaction of hearing a 
parent say: 

"My little girl has learned more this term than she ever 
did before," or "I never can thank you enough for what 
you have done for my boy." 

Let us next consider some of the duties of the parents. 

1. Parents should reciprocate the teacher's attempts to 
get acquainted. 

2. They should visit the school. It stimulates the 
teacher and pupils to do better work. Parents should 
manifest an interest in their children's studies. Often 
they do not even know what their children are studying. 
We know a lady who helps her little boy with all his lessons 
every evening. This is a good plan, provided the parent 
does not give too much help. We have known children to 
prepare- their lessons at home so as to have more time to 
play in school. This makes a great deal of extra work for 
the teacher who must provide profitable busy work for 
them. Children who are accustomed to having help with 
their lessons will seldom master any difficulty for them- 
selves. 

3. Parents should learn the teacher's plans and do all in 
their power to aid. 

4. They should promptly supply the necessary books and 
other supplies. If a parent has a doubt about the neces- 
sity for a new book, he should see the teacher about it at 
once, and not send an uncivil or angry message by the 



242 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

child, or worse still, spend an hour or two gossiping with the 
neighbors on the teacher's folly of pushing the children 
through books. 

5. Parents should see that their children are decently 
clothed, and cleanly in their persons. The character of the 
mother is reflected in the persons of her children. Let one 
but take an inventory of the child and he has a fair idea of 
the condition of the home. Soap and water are cheap and 
there is no reason for the teacher to be insulted with filthi- 
ness. She can have no heart to come in contact with such 
pupils. It is sometimes necessary to send a child home with 
a note to the mother requesting that she give him a bath 
and clean clothes before allowing him to return to school. 

6. Parents should see that their children attend punctu- 
ally and regularly. Children who are too ill to go to school 
should be treated as sick patients, and not be allowed to 
romp about the house, read, or look at picture books. 

7. Parents should be slow in condemning the teacher. 
Often some highly deserving youth who has been punished 
for his dark deeds determines upon revenge, and tells 
his story to any one who will hear it. The inconsiderate 
parent Hstens sympathizingly and heartily condemns the 
teacher; often going so far as to make a hurried visit to the 
school, and angrily lecturing the teacher before the pupils, 
without learning her side of the story. If the teacher 
attempts to explain matters, the parent refuses to hear any- 
thing different from Johnny's version, and goes away very 
indignant, mentally resolving to do everything in his power 
to keep the teacher from teaching the school another term. 

Parents often expect more of a teacher than she can 
possibly accomplish. They expect the school to be a 



DUTIES OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS 243 

model of good order, and each one wants his child to be 
foremost in learning. The parent often compares the 
teacher's government with his own family discipline. He 
forgets his frequent fits of impatience, even in his little 
circle, and wonders at the "unrestrained temper" of the 
teacher, who is probably doing all that can be expected, 
with some thirty or forty pupils whose tempers, capacities, 
and habits are as different as their countenances. Con- 
sider the life of the teacher. Every error in matter or man- 
ner of the class work must be corrected; and at the same 
time, the stolen whisper must be heard, the idler must be 
watched and his plaything captured, the arch trick must 
be anticipated, the wayward set right, and the stubborn 
and impudent subdued. Who can wonder that the teacher 
should sometimes make mistakes in discipline? 

8. Lastly, parents should give the teacher their sym- 
pathy. If teachers could have the sympathy and active 
cooperation of parents, the profession would soon be filled 
with devoted and talented men and women willing to 
sacrifice all for their work. 



' CHAPTER XXI 

THE REWARDS OF THE SUCCESSFUL 
TEACHER 

It has been alleged, and with much justice, that the call- 
ing of the teacher, which demands for its successful exer- 
cise the best of talents, the most persevering energy, and 
the largest share of self-denial, has never attained an appre- 
ciation in the public mind at all commensurate with its 
importance. It has by no means received the emoluments, 
either in money or honor, which strict justice would award 
in any other department to the talents and exertions re- 
quired for this. Not a few talented teachers have been 
forced to leave the profession because they could not 
earn enough to support their families, and in many instances 
their places have been filled by persons too young and igno- 
rant to be employed elsewhere. 

The people have been very slow in awakening to the 
pecuniary value of the teacher's labor. Happily the time 
has passed when the farmers and mechanics of a school 
district felt that they could afford to pay more liberally for 
washing and ironing, for making butter and cheese, or for 
tilling the soil, than they could for educating the immortal 
minds of their children! During the first half century after 
the Revolutionary War, schoolmasters were paid from ten to 
fifteen dollars a month, exclusive of board; and the school- 
mistress was paid from three to eight dollars per month. 
As late as 1814, Mary Lyon, the founder of Mt. Holyoke 

244 



THE REWARDS OF THE SUCCESSFUL TEACHER 24 ^ 

Seminary and College, taught her first district school in 
western Massachusetts for three dollars a month, and 
"boarded round." 

It lies within the power of the teachers to control the 
wages. As a rule, people are capable of recognizing a good 
teacher, and are not slow to believe that "the laborer is 
worthy of his hire." The teacher who is ready to devote 
heart and soul to her work, can often command her own 
salary in the end. How many teachers, who have been 
about to leave the limited district where they were teaching, 
have been told by parents that if they would stay for an- 
other year the people would contribute a sum sufficient to 
make up the difference in salary gained by the change? 
We have known instances of this kind, but those teachers 
were of the patient, industrious, never-tiring, hard- 
to-find species, who made themselves invaluable to the 
community. 

No one ever heard of a person accumulating great riches 
by teaching school. The chief reward of the teacher is not 
mere money-getting. She must have some more elevating, 
inspiring motive, if she desires to go cheerfully about her 
daily toil and find enjoyment in the tiresome routine. 
There are many rewards in teaching. 

The teacher's profession affords vast opportunity for 
intellectual growth. The faithful, devoted teacher always 
learns more than her pupils; she cannot help but grow 
mentally. She comes before her class each day with an 
increased wealth of knowledge and a variety of ideas for 
illustration, feeling that she can present the various sub- 
jects in a manner adapted to the pupils' comprehension. 
This consciousness of power is a reward in itself. 



246 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

The teacher's profession offers an incentive for moral 
growth. She recognizes that example is better than pre- 
cept, and feels the need of constantly keeping a watch 
over her own thoughts and actions. She learns self-con- 
trol. As she masters her impatience, bridles her tongue, 
and learns to smile instead of showing anger, she recog- 
nizes with Seneca, "That the most powerful is he who has 
himself in his power." She finds that her moral power 
over others is much increased and that she can secure 
obedience with half the effort formerly required. This 
conscious victory over self cannot be measured by a money 
equivalent. 

A consciousness of improvement in the art of teaching is 
another reward. As her own knowledge increases, the 
teacher feels a new interest in the various subjects, and is 
filled with a desire to interest others. She studies carefully 
to use the proper motives and incentives, and employs all 
her ingenuity to discover the natural order of presenting 
truths to the mind. In order that she may constantly im- 
prove her teaching, the teacher must daily examine her 
methods and results. Pythagoras gives the following 
advice: "Let not sleep fall upon thine eyes till thou hast 
thrice reviewed the transactions of the past day. Where 
have I turned aside from rectitude? What have I been 
doing? What have I left undone which I ought to have 
done? Begin thus from the first act, and proceed; and in, 
conclusion, at the ill which thou hast done, be troubled, 
and rejoice for the good." 

The teacher has the pleasure of watching pupils' mental 
growth. As she stands before a class skillfully presenting 
some new truth, she should be quickened into enthusiasm 



THE REWARDS OF THE SUCCESSFUL TEACHER 247 

by the sparkling eyes and shining faces of her pupils as 
they grasp the new thoughts. Their evident enjoyment 
of the lesson is a reward for the teacher. She should feel 
amply repaid for the time spent in preparing the lesson. 
From day to day, as she meets her classes, she can watch 
them grow in strength; she is not obliged to labor without 
immediate results. A teacher employed for several years 
in the same community is often astonished at the rapidity 
with which the young who come first as mere children, 
grow into men and women. She watches them with an 
almost parental interest as they take 'their places in the 
ranks of human endeavor. Have they not grown up under 
her eye, their minds essentially shaped by her mind? Here 
is one who has become a noted author; another is a brilliant 
journalist; another bright young man bids fair to become a 
distinguished artist. Some have become noted leaders in 
civil affairs; others have entered the professional ranks and 
have become distinguished for their attainments in science; 
and nearly all are engaged in various departments of 
honorable industry. She counts them all as her jewels. 
Is not this a precious reward? 

The teacher enjoys the grateful remembrance of pupils 
and their friends. Some of the finest moments a teacher 
ever experiences are those when a parent thanks her for 
what she has done for his child. 

A teacher was preparing to move to new fields of labor on 
Monday morning. He attended church Sabbath evening 
and led the young peoples' meeting. After the service his 
friends crowded about to bid him good-by. One lady 
came with outstretched hands and streaming eyes, and in a 
voice of deep emotion, said she could never thank the 



248 THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE COMMUNITY 

teacher enough for what he had done for her boy. She 
invoked the richest of Heaven's blessings upon the head of 
the teacher, who by kindness and perseverance had won her 
wayward son to obedience and duty. Was not that teacher 
well repaid? The occasional reports that came in after 
years of that young man's success in life were very precious. 

How many of us can look back to our own childhood in 
gratefulness for some patient, self-denying, faithful teacher! 
Such never goes unrewarded. Parents and pupils are 
sometimes slow in expressing their gratitude to the teacher, 
but in their hearts they are truly thankful, and repay the 
debt in loving remembrance. 

The teacher has the pleasure of being engaged in an 
Honorable, useful calling. Who does not prefer above 
houses and lands — infinitely above all the wealth of the 
world, the consciousness of being engaged in a work of use- 
fulness? Man was made for usefulness, and who would 
not desire to answer the design of his creation? 

The very usefulness of the teacher's calling makes it 
honorable. "It is always honorable to scatter the light of 
truth." Some of the greatest and best men of the world 
have been teachers. Confucius, Seneca, Socrates, Aris- 
totle, and Plato were noted teachers of ancient times. 
Roger Ascham, Edward Thring, John Milton, Froebel, 
Pestalozzi, Arnold, and a host of others have adorned the 
profession in later ages. Many distinguished men of our 
own country might be mentioned, who began their careers 
of usefulness by being teachers of youth. The teacher's 
profession is certainly an honorable one; but it is well to 
remember that *' it is not the position which makes the man 
honorable, but the man the position." 



THE REWARDS OF THE SUCCESSFUL TEACHER 24Q 

Let the teacher, then, study to improve intellectually and 
morally, and to advance in the art of teaching. Let her 
watch the growth of mind under her guidance and be 
cheered by the encouragement which that affords. Let 
her consider opportunities for usefulness and the circum- 
stances which make her calling honorable. Let her prize 
the gratitude of pupils and of their parents and friends. 
And above all, let her consider the rewards which await 
those who toil hopefully and patiently for the betterment of 
humanity. 

The twig is so easily bended, 

I have banished the rule and the rod ; 
I have taught them the goodness of knowledge, 

They have taught me the goodness of God. 
My heart is a dungeon of darkness, 

Where I shut them from breaking the rule; 
My frown is sufficient correction ; 

My love is the law of the school. 



INDEX 



A "bad" school, 17-18 

Absence, interference of, 236 

Abstract, the, 125 

Accurate accountant, 78 

A Child of the Cold, study outline, 66 

A country teacher, example, 8-1 1 

Advice to parents, 29 

Agricultural clubs, 173 

Agricultural extension courses, 60 

Agriculture, importance of, 173 
studies in, 174-206 

Alternating classes, 23 

Amplification in composition, 128 

Analysis in grammar, 91, 93 

Animals, 160; references on, 161; 
stories of, 136 

Appreciation, parents', 247-248 

Aquarium, 34-35 

Arbor Day, 198-200 

Arithmetic, teaching of, 73-80; 

Aromatic spirits of ammonia, 112 

Attendance, 236 

Attention, 43-44 

Autumn, trees in, 154-156 

Awakening Interest in School 
(Chapter V), 36-42: use of ob- 
servation, 36; general exercises, 
37; interesting the parents, 37; 
making supplementary studies a 
hobby, 38; what one teacher did, 
38-41; general purpose, 42 

Backward pupils, 15, 47 

Bad characters, 16 

Beautifying school grounds, 198-200 

Beautifying the Schoolroom 
(Chapter IV), 30-35: making 
surroundings bright and attrac- 
tive, 30; what one teacher did, 
30-32; the teacher's part, 32; 
a homelike school, 32; room deco- 
ration, ^^-j school cabinet, ^^'y 
portfolio plant collections, 34; 



entomological collections, 34; an 
aquarium, 34; keeping in mind 
schoolroom needs, 35 

Beetles, 202, 204 

Beginning the School Year 
(Chapter I), 7-12: importance of 
good beginning, 7; how one teach- 
er began, 8-1 1 ; plans for work, 1 1 ; 
making room homelike, 11; ad- 
ministering reproof, 11; the in- 
dolent child, 12; the necessary 
rule, 12; some suggestions, 12 

Biglow Papers, extract from, 40-41 

Biographies, value of, 82 

Bird poems, 152, 159, 172 

Bird studies, 150-152, 159, 169-172 

Bluebird, 145 

Body, care of, 113-117, 1 19-120 

Books, use of, 134; choice of, 135 

Box library, 139-140 

Boxwood maps, 102 

Bread, 223 

Breathing exercises, 1 20-1 21 

Breeding jar, 205 

Brook, selection from Lowell, 162 

Bulbs, work with, 154 

Bulletins, U. S. Bureau of Educa- 
tion, 61 

Bureau of Entomology, 206 

Bureau of Forestry, 168 

Bureau of Wood Utilization, 168 

Business arithmetic, 80 

Butterfly, 202 

Cabinets, 2,2) 
Care of sick, 225 
Castor oil, 112 
Catalogues, 140 
Caterpillars, 160, 202 
Celebrations, 57, 59 
Cheese, study of, 217 
Chickadee, 169, 170 
Childhood surroundings, 30 



250 



INDEX 



251 



Cipher Down, 79 

Civic league, 224 

Civil War, study of, 39-40 

Class in Reading, The (Chapter 
VIII), 63-72: purpose, 63; sup- 
plementary material, 63-65; Child 
of the Cold, type lesson, 66-67; 
methods, 67-69; suggestions, 69- 
70; reference list, 70-72 

Class, position of, 44 

Clippings, 139, 140 

Club extension work, 54, 55, 56, 60 

Clubs, farmers', 53 

Collections, 33-34, 172, 204 

Community, betterment, 56; center, 
52; club extension work, 55; club 
rule, 59; clubs, 53; gatherings, 49, 
52, 55. 56, 58, 59; organization of 
club, 53; playground, 58-59; 
topics for study, 60 

Comparisons, avoidance of, 242 

Conducting Recitations (Chapter 
VI), 43-47: teacher's knowledge 
and enthusiasm, 43-44; minor 
details, 44; division of recitation, 
45; manner of questioning, 45; 
avoidance of formal routine, 45; 
use of intelligible language, 46; 
helping laggards and dullards, 47; 
recitation the real test, 47 

Confusing language, 46 

Confusion, 22-23 

Consolidation, 49-50 

Cooker, tireless, 210 

Cooperative activity, 52, 54, 56 

Corn meal, 222-223 

Corn, study of, 184-187 

Corporal punishment, 28 

Correct standing, 118 

Cotton, industrial lesson, 103-106 

Country clubs, 54 

Courtesy, 14 

Cover crops, 200 

Credits for home work, 207-209, 224 

Cross-fertilization, 194 

Cyanide jar, 204 



Debate, subjects for, 60 
Decoration, home, 225; 
33-35 



school, 



Definitions, correctness of, 80 

Demands of country life, 50 

Deportment, 19-23 

Devotional exercises, 230-231 

Diagraming, 87, 91 

Discipline, object of, 14 

Disease, cost of, in 

Domestic science, 207-229 

Drills, arithmetic, 78; reading, 68; 
rest and exercise, 11 9-1 21 

Dull pupils, 15, 47 

Dumb-bell exercise, 120 

Duties of Parents and Teachers 
(Chapter XX), 236-243: relative 
duties and obligations, 236; par- 
ents fail to recognize school's im- 
portance, 236; conditions met by 
one teacher, 236-237; parents 
overestimate children's knowl- 
edge, 237; a "smart" young miss, 
238; parents too critical, 238; in- 
clined to dictate, 239; lack of 
acquaintance, 239; parents not all 
to blame, 239; duties of teacher, 
240-241; parents, 241-243 

Dwighl's Geography, selection, 94 

Early impressions, 16 
Earthworms, 181-182 
Economics, home, defined, 219 
Economy, true, 228 
Educational gardens, 173 
Eggs, study of, 2 18 
Embryo, seed, 194 
Entertainment, neighborhood, 49, 

56-59; suggestions, 57; funds, 57 
Entomological collections, 34 
Equipment, 35, 49, 52 
Errors, correction of, 78 
Exciting interest, 43 
Experiments, with corn, 195-196; 

with food, 2x6; plants, 191 -193 
Extension, community, 55; courses, 

university, 60 

Fall nature study, 1 53-161 
Farm Bulletins, use of, 139 
Farm reference books, 206 
Farmers' club, 53-54 
Fireless cooker, 210 



252 



INDEX 



First aid, 111-113 

First day of school, 7 

Fish, food value, 220 

Flower poems, 147, 154, 156 

Flowers, 146, 154 

Food, budget, 228; experiments, 

216; values, 214-216 
Forest products, 167 
Forestry, 167-168 
Formal routine, 45 
Formaldehyde, 112 
Formation of earth's crust, 97 
Friday afternoon, 233-234 
Frivolous teachers, 13 
Frost, 162 
Fungi, 1 79-181 

Games, value of, 235 

General exercises, 23 

Geographical names, 99 

Geography Class, With the 
(Chapter XII), 94-109: purpose of 
geography, 94; supplementary 
reading, 95-108; map making, 
100-103; problems, 103-106; 
topics, 106-107; results, 108; list 
of supplementary books, 108-109 

Germination, 152-153, 195-196 

Getting together, 48 

Gilpin, Joint, abstract, 125 

Good body, 113-117 

Good manners, 240 

Good order, 19 

Government publications, 62, 140 

Government, school, 13-23 

Grammar, 87-93, i-4 

Grasses, 183-184 

Growth in teaching, 246 

Habits, health, 113-115; of speech, 

88; personal, 114 
Harvest Home, 197 
Health, laws, 117; rules, 116 
Heat and cold, 178 
Helps, in history, 82, 84, 86; in 

geography, 108 
Historical pageant, 58 
History in the Grades (Chapter 

X), 81-86: value, 81; work in first 



five grades, 81-82; biography, 82; 
study of history proper, 83; use 
of several texts, 83; outlines, 83; 
original sources, 84; iconoclasts, 
84; making history alive, 85; class 
management, 85-86; helps, 86 

Hobby, avoidance of, 234 

Home, bookless, 134; decoration, 
225; diversions, 56; handicraft, 61; 
the model, 225-226 

Home Science (Chapter XVIII), 
207-229: teacher's attitude, 207; 
home economics defined, 207; 
school credits for, 207-209; hot 
school lunch, 209-211; a model 
school, 212; another well- 
equipped school, 213; timehness, 
213-214; food values, 214-223; 
sanitation, 223-225; home prob- 
lems, 225-226; textiles, 227; class 
in gumption, 227; thrift, 228-229 

Home work, 207-209, 224 

Household accounts, 228 

Housework as exercise, 121 

Humidifier, use of, 211 

Hygiene, no 

Idleness, 19 

Ignorance, admitting, 46 
Impartiality, 15 
Inaccuracy, pupils', 78 
Indolence, 12 
Industrial efficiency, 114 
Industrial geography, 103-106 
Industry topics, 106 
Infectious diseases, iii 
Insect collections, 204, 205 
Insects, 160-161; 202-206 
Interest, the child's, 42; in school, 

36-42 
Interruptions, 21 

Jonathan to John, 40-41 
Journeys, imaginary, 96 
Juvenile literature, 135 

Kinglet, 172 

Kitchen, school, 212, 213 

Knowledge, overestimated, 237 



INDEX 



253 



Laggards and dullards, 47 

Language, use of confusing, 46; 
training, 89; modern usage, 90 

Larvae, 203 

Learning to read, 67-68 

Leaves, 148 

Legumes, 182-183 

Letter writing, 131 

Library, lists, 70; school, 134-141 

Lichens, 1 79-181 

Lime water, 113 

Lincoln, 39-40, 41 

Listerine, 112 

Literature and Composition 
(Chapter XIV), 123-133: im- 
portance, 123; teacher's duty, 123; 
purpose of all teaching, 123; culti- 
vation of literary taste, 124; 
composition work, 125; the ab- 
stract, 125-127; poems, 127; 
outline, 127; amplification, 128- 
130; paraphrasing, 130-131; de- 
scriptive composition, 132; time 
for study, 133 

Loss of privileges, 26 

Lunch, school, 209-212 

Magazine books, 139 

Magazines, use of, 64 

Management of school, 14 

Map making: relief, 100; pulp, 
100— loi; salt relief, 102; sand, 
102; boxwood, 102-103; map 
drawing, 103 

Meat, study of, 218 

Meat substitutes, 219-220 

Medical inspectors, 113 

Medicine cabinet, 111-113 

Menus, planning, 228 

Methods, 67-68 

Migration, 151, 159 

Milk, study of, 217 

Minerals, 172 

Minnesota schools, 49, 50, 55 

Miracles of transformation, 48 

Missouri school district, 212 

Mistakes of parents, 236-239 

Montaigne, quoted, 81 

Morris, Anna, quoted, 117 

Mosses, 1 79-181 



Moths, 203 
Muscular exercise, 122 

Names, geographical, 99 

National forests, 168 

National Reading Circle, 61 

Nature poems, 144, 153 

Natitre Study (Chapter XVI), 
142-172: aim, 142; timeliness, 
143; material, suggestions, 143; 
poems, 144-146, 150; spring 
study, 145-153; fall study, 153- 
161; winter study, 162-172 

Nature's packages, 149 

Neatness, 20 

Nicknames, 98 

Night school, 49 

Niter, sweet spirits of, 112 

Nitrogen for crops, 1 74 

Oak, study of, 165-166 
Obedience, 29 

On Fighting Decks in 18 12, sugges- 
tions for school use, 136 
Orchard, 1 90-191 
Order, importance, 13; enemies, 19 
Organization, community, 53-62 
Origin of geographical names, 99 
Original sources in history, 84 
Originality, lack of, 22 
Outdoor recreation, 234 

Page, David P., quoted, 6, 24, 73, 87 

Pageant of pioneer life, 58 

Papers and magazines, 138, 139 

Paraphrasing, 130-13 1 

Parents' afternoon, 233 

Parents, duties of, 241-243 

Parents' interest, 37 

Parsing, 87, 91 

Personal acquaintance with parents, 

239 

Physical culture, 11 8-1 2 2 

Physical geography, 97 

Physical Training and Hygiene 
(Chapter XIII) iio-i 22: teacher 
as public health educator, no; 
study, no; "ounce of preven- 
tion," in; medicine cabinet, ni- 
113; medical inspectors, 113; 



254 INDEX 

awakening appreciation of good 
body, 113-114; industrial effi- 
ciency, 114; health rules, 115-116; 
value of perfect body, 116; effect 
of reflex action on character, 117; 
good form and courteous bearing, 
118; calisthenic drill, 118; poise 
and self-possession, 119; rest 
exercises, 120; benefits from exer- 
cise and deep breathing, 120; 
breathing exercises, 1 20-1 21; the 
best exercise, 121; housework, 
1 21-122; object of muscular 
exercise, 122; references, 122 

Physiology, object of, no 

Pictures, use of, 140, 143; geo- 
graphical, 100 

Plants, experiments with, 191 

Playground, 49, 58 

Poetical names, 98 

Poetry, 137 

Portfolio plant collection, 34 

Potato Growers' Association, 59-60 

Practical arithmetic, 75-78 

Practical problems, 76-77 

Prevention, ounce of, in 

Progress in country life, 48 

Public health, no 

Pulp maps, loi 

Punishments, 24-29 

Pupils, backward, 15, 47; bad, 16; 
clean, 242; dull, 15, 47 

Pythagoras, quoted, 246 

Quarles, quoted, 29 
Questioning, 45 

Radiopticon, 108 

Rain, 146 

Reading, 63-72 

Recitation, conducting, 43-47; as 

test, 47 
Recognition of words, 69 
Recreation, 230-235; in arithmetic, 

79; in geography, 95-100; in 

grammar, 91-93; in history, 86; 

in reading, 69-70; in recitation, 

232-233 
Relief maps, 102 



Rewards of the Successful 
Teacher, The (Chapter XXI), 
244-249: calling unappreciated, 
244; pecuniary value, 244; teach- 
ers may control wages, 245; 
reward not money getting, 245; 
intellectual growth, 245; moral 
growth, 246; consciousness of 
improvement, 246; pleasure in 
watching pupils' growth, 246; 
remembrance of pupils, 247-248; 
usefulness, 248; some illustrious 
teachers, 248; rewards, 248 

Rice, 223 

Ridicule, 25 

Routine, avoiding, 45 

Rules, for all, 14; for health, 116; 
for school management, 11-12 

Rural disease, in 

Rural school grounds, 48, 198 

Salary control, 245 

Salt relief maps, 102 

Sanitation, no-iii, 223-225 

Scholarship, teacher's, 16 

School as a Community Center, 
The (Chapter VII), 48-62: for 
promotion of neighborliness, 48; 
miracles of transformation, 48; 
modern equipment, 49; waste of 
small school, 50; model one- 
teacher school, 50-52; community 
club, 53; cooperative work, 54.; 
a Young Women's Club, 54; ex- 
tension work, 55-56; a Texas 
organization, 56; social life solu- 
tion of the rural problem, 56-57; 
school an art center, 58; country 
life club, 58; community play- 
ground, 58-59; rule for club, 59; 
cooperation in Wisconsin, 59; 
short extension courses, 60; sub- 
jects for study, 60; help from 
Bureau of Education, 61 

School cabinet, 33 

School credits for home work, 207- 
209 

School fair, 58 

School farm, 48, 49 

School gardens, 173, 196-198, 212 



INDEX 



255 



School Government (Chapter II), 
13-23: need of order, 13; requi- 
sites in teacher, 13-15; dull pupils, 
15; scholarship, 16; securing order, 
16; one teacher's methods, 17-18; 
pleasure of well-doing, 18; devices 
and helps, 19-22; recitation, 
22-23; teacher's motto, 23 

School home, 57; homelike, 32 

School in Township Ten, 30-32 

School Library,The (Chapter XV) , 
134-141: value of, 134; a bookless 
home, 134; reading an educational 
agency, 134; teacher's best work, 
134; choice of books, 135; uses of 
books, 135; fiction, 135-136; his- 
tory and travel, 136; poetry, 137; 
founding a library, 138-139; 
papers and magazines, 139-140; 
clippings, 140; reference library, 
140; library as avenue for reach- 
ing parents, 141 

School management, requisites, 14 

Schoolmaster' s Guests, outline, 127 

School newspaper, 231-232 

School plant, object of, 48 

School Punishments (Chapter 
III), 24-29: punishment defined, 
24; classified, 24; wrong punish- 
ments, 24-26; legitimate punish- 
ments, 26-29 

School Recreations and Amuse- 
ments (Chapter XIX), 230-235: 
value, 230; devotional exercises, 
230-231; responsive quotations, 
231; current events, 232; news- 
paper, 232; recreation in recita- 
tion, 232-233; Friday afternoon, 
233-234; authors' birthdays, 234; 
gymnastic recreations, 234; ex- 
periment lessons, school debates, 
and exhibitions, 234; outdoor 
amusements, 234; a minute's 
change, 235; teacher's interest, 
235; value of games, 235 

School's social obligations, 57-60 

Schools, consolidated, 49; model, 
48-52 

Schools dependent on teachers, 43 

Science, home, 207-229 



Scolding, folly of, 26 

Scripture readings, 231 

Seating plans, 45 

Seeds, 153, 156-158, 194-196 

Self-mastery, 13 

Sick, credits for care of, 225 

Sick stomach, 113 

Signal Service, 97 

Skinner, H. M., quoted, 84 

Smart, James H., quoted, 121 

Snow Bound, selection from, 128; 
amplification of, 129-130 

Social life and rural problems, 56 

Social organization, 57 

Soils, study of, 175-182 

Song of Grass Blades, quoted, 183 

Sore throat, 113 

Special autumn work, 200-202 

Special spring work, 1 91-196 

Spring nature study, 145-153 

Spring poems, 145 

Standing, correct, 118 

Stems, study of, 191-193 

Stereopticon, 107 

Submission for self-preservation, 25 

Sugar beets, 189 

Sugar cane, 189-190 

Sulphur, 113 

Supplementary, books, in geog- 
raphy, 95; in reading, 64; studies, 

38-41. 
Sweet oil, 112 
Swift, Jonathan, quoted, 4 
Sympathy, need of, 243 

Talk with the Grammar Teacher, 
A, (Chapter XI), 87-93: difficulty 
of grammar, 87; requisites for suc- 
cessful teaching, 87; grammar not 
an exact science, 87; use of parsing 
and diagraming, 87-88; language 
before grammar, 88; outline, 89; 
supplementary work, 89; accuracy 
and facility, 90; modern usage, 90; 
good writing defined, 90; sentence 
analysis, 90; recreations, 91-93 
object, 93 

Teacher: advent of the new, 7-8, 
as companion, 235; attainments 
not enough, 38; calling, 244 



256 



INDEX 



criterion of good teacher, 44; 
definition of, 41; duties of, 24a- 
241; health promoter, no; im- 
portance of, 15; manners of, 
240; preparation, 44; profession, 
value of, 24s; rewards, 245-248; 
scholarship, 16, 73-74, 76 

Teaching Arithmetic (Chapter 
IX), 73-80: teacher's knowledge 
and preparation, 73-74; practical 
work, 75-78; accuracy, 78; Cipher 
Down, 79; neatness and system, 
79; written reviews and tests, 79; 
definitions, 80; aim, 80 

Testing seed, 195-196 

Texas school, 56 

Textbooks, 66-67; 95 

Textiles, 227 

Thaxter, Celia, quoted, 184 

Thompson, Maurice, quoted, 144 

Thrift, 228-229 

Tree poems, 150, 156, 164 

Trees, 147-150; 154-156; 163-168 

Truthfulness, 18 

Turpentine, 112 

Unhealthy living, 114 
University extension courses, 60 
Usefulness of teaching, 248 
U. S. Bureau of Education, help, 61 

Van Cleve, quoted, 63 
Variety in composition, 91 
Vegetables, study of, 221-222 
Vital element of recitation, 47 

Wages under teacher's control, 245 
Waking up minds, 36 



Walking, 118 

Washington, a school in, 49 

Water, work of, 178 

Weeds, 201-202 

Well-doing, pleasure of, 18 

What to do with Agriculture 
(Chapter XVII), 173-206: agri- 
culture in schools, 173; educa- 
tional gardens, 173; interest of 
states, 1 73 ; agriculture and neigh- 
borhood problems, 174-175; study 
of soils, 175-177; special topics, 
problems, and references, 176- 
177; soil making, 178-179; fungi, 
lichens, and mosses, 1 79-181; 
work of earthworms, 181; legumes, 
182-183; grasses, 183-184; corn, 
184-187; wheat, 187-188; sugar- 
producing plants, 189-190; the 
orchard, 190-19 1; special spring 
work, 191-195; testing seed, 195- 
196; school garden, 196-198; 
Arbor Day, 198-200; special au- 
tumn work, 200-201; weeds, 201- 
202; insects, 202-204; insect col- 
lections, 204-206 

Wheat, study of, 187-188 

White, Emerson, quoted, 89 

Whittier, quoted, 128 

Wind, 145-146 

Winter nature study, 162-172 

Woodpecker, red-headed, 170 

Wood utilization, 168 

Writing letters, 131 

Writing, requisites of good, 90 

Written work, neatness of, 79 

Young Women's Country Club, 

54-56 



